von Lena Westphal (Nachhaltigkeitsmanagement)
Immer häufiger stellt sich heraus, dass in vielen Bereichen im Leben keine Gleichberechtigung zwischen Frau und Mann besteht. Dies hat oft auch den Grund, dass die Forschung zu bestimmten Themen, die für Frauen relevant sind, rückschrittig ist bzw. sich gerade erst aufbaut. So ist bekannt, dass die Klimakrise mehr negative Auswirkungen auf Frauen als auf Männer hat. Der vierte Gleichstellungsbericht des Bundes greift dieses Thema als Fokusthema mit der Bezeichnung „Gleichstellung in der sozial-ökologischen Transformation“ auf.
Disclaimer: In diesem Blogartikel wird von dem Familienmodell Frau, Mann, evtl. Kind(er) gesprochen und sich auf ein binäres Geschlecht bezogen. Ich bin mir bewusst, dass es natürlich und zum Glück (!) viele verschiedene Familienmodelle und Geschlechter gibt und möchte darauf hinweisen, dass beispielsweise alleinstehende, alleinerziehende, Frauen mit einer Behinderung, Trans*frauen oder Frauen in einer gleichgeschlechtlichen Beziehung noch härter von den Auswirkungen der Klimakrise betroffen sind als heterosexuelle Cis-Frauen.
So nimmt die Marginalisierung von LGBTIQ+Personen beispielsweise im Katastrophenfall zu. Sie erfahren beim Zugang zu Wasser, Lebensmitteln, Gesundheitsversorgung und Notunterkünften häufig Diskriminierung.
*** English version below ***
Frauen sind gesundheitlich stärker von den Auswirkungen des Klimawandels betroffen als Männer, da sie häufiger mit Hitzesymptomen wie Kopfschmerzen, Leistungsabfall und Schlafstörungen zu kämpfen haben. Auch in der Schwangerschaft kann es durch Hitzewellen, die von der Erderwärmung ausgelöst werden, zu Komplikationen und sogar Frühgeburten kommen. Auch die Ressourcenverknappung, etwa bei Lebensmitteln, hat mehr Auswirkungen auf die Frau, da ihre Überlebenswahrscheinlichkeit geringer ist als bei Männern. So waren 2023 im Hitzesommer 75 Prozent aller Verstorbenen weiblich.
Es gibt auch gesellschaftliche und politische Gründe, warum Frauen stärker von der Erderwärmung betroffen sind. Das klassische Rollenbild einer Frau, das immer noch Teil unserer Gesellschaft ist, sieht vor, dass sich Frauen zunächst erstmal um andere kümmern und erst zum Schluss um sich selbst. Frauen leisten weltweit mehr Care-Arbeit (= Sorgearbeit oder Pflegearbeit) als Männer.
Die Ungleichverteilung von Sorge- und Haushaltsaufgaben erschwert es Frauen, sich an die Auswirkungen des Klimawandels anzupassen. So haben sie meistens einen schlecht bezahlten Job in der Familie und sind somit abhängig von ihrem Partner. Ihnen bleibt insgesamt auch weniger Zeit, sich ausreichend über den Klimawandel und dessen Folgen zu informieren.
Insgesamt sei betont, dass es sich hierbei nicht nur um Probleme der Frauen im globalen Süden handelt, sondern es ein weltweites Problem ist. Nach dem Wirbelsturm Katrina in den USA 2005 haben beispielsweise mehr Frauen als Männer aufgrund von Care-Arbeit ihren Job aufgegeben, damit sie sich besser um ihre Familien kümmern konnten.
Frauen arbeiten auch häufiger in Pflegeberufen und sind hier einem direkten Infektionsrisiko ausgesetzt, was die Corona-Pandemie bereits bestens gezeigt hat. Die Klimakrise wird langfristig für weitere und häufiger auftretende Pandemien sorgen und hier werden dann auch wieder Frauen einem erhöhten Infektionsrisiko ausgesetzt sein, da sie vermehrt an vorderster Front in systemrelevanten Berufen arbeiten. Pandemien sorgen zusätzlich dafür, dass die Gleichstellung von Frau und Mann wieder gefährdet wird, da sich Frauen auch eher um das Homeschooling der Kinder kümmern als Männer.
Mehr als zwei Drittel der Studien (68 Prozent) zeigen, dass Frauen durch den Klimawandel größeren Gesundheitsrisiken ausgesetzt sind. Das Kreisdiagramm zeigt die Ergebnisse von 130 Studien über Klimawandel und Gesundheit: 89 Studien kamen zu dem Ergebnis, dass Frauen stärker betroffen sind als Männer, 30 Studien kamen zu dem Ergebnis, dass Männer stärker betroffen sind als Frauen, und 11 Studien kamen zu dem Ergebnis, dass es keinen Unterschied in der Betroffenheit von Männern und Frauen gibt. Weltweit sind Frauen häufiger als Männer von klimabedingter Ernährungsunsicherheit betroffen und leiden nach extremen Wetterereignissen auch häufiger unter psychischen Erkrankungen oder Gewalt in der Partnerschaft.
Weltweit sind Frauen insgesamt stärker von Armut betroffen und verfügen über weniger Geld oder Besitz als Männer. Im globalen Süden haben Frauen tendenziell weniger Landbesitz, weniger Zugang zu landwirtschaftlichen Produktionsmitteln wie Geräten, Saatgut oder Dünger, aber auch weniger Kapital.
Aufgrund der zunehmenden Trockenheit verlängert sich die Strecke bis zu den Wasserquellen. Die Wasserversorgung ist in vielen Kulturen Frauensache und meistens essen und trinken Männer zuerst, sodass am Ende kaum noch etwas für die Frauen übrigbleibt, obwohl diese das Wasser, aufgrund ihrer Menstruation, dringend benötigen. Durch die weiteren Wege, machen sich die Frauen häufig schon im Dunkeln auf den Weg oder kehren erst nachts zurück, wodurch sie einem erhöhten Risiko von sexualisierter Gewalt ausgesetzt sind.
Frauen werden früher zu Hausarbeit, wozu auch das Heranschaffen von Wasser gehört, herangezogen. Sie haben dadurch weniger Zeit und Gelegenheit, Bildung zu erlangen, wenn die Wege zu den Wasserstellen immer weiter werden.
Die Lebensmittel werden aufgrund klimatischer Veränderungen insgesamt knapper. Frauen in ärmeren Ländern sind eher dem Risiko zu hungern ausgesetzt als Männer, da die knappe Nahrung eher an sie verteilt wird.
Auch politisch gesehen haben Frauen einen Nachteil. In selbstversorgenden Familien führt die Politik dazu, dass sich diese Familien auf immer schlechteren Böden durchschlagen müssen. Sobald Männer die Familien als “Klimaflüchtlinge” verlassen, müssen die hinterbliebenen Frauen ihre Familien alleine versorgen, was sie noch angreifbarer macht.
Kommt es zu Extremwetterereignissen verletzen sich oder sterben Frauen sogar häufiger als Männer. Vor allem in Ländern, in denen Frauen einen niedrigeren sozioökonomischen Status haben, gehen diese selten ohne männliche Begleitung aus dem Haus, tragen Kleidung, die die Bewegungsfreiheit bei möglichen Überflutungen sehr einschränkt und werden später vor Klimakatastrophen gewarnt. Während die Männer bei der Arbeit sind, kümmern sich Frauen zu Hause um die Familie und den Haushalt. Oft können Frauen auch nicht schwimmen, was die Flucht bei Überschwemmungen nahezu unmöglich macht. So waren 2004 bei dem Tsunami in Südostasien 70 Prozent der Todesopfer Frauen.
Als 1991 der Zyklon “Gorki” an der Küste von Bangladesch wütete, kamen neunmal mehr Frauen ums Leben als Männer. Bei den verheerenden Buschbränden 2009 in Australien wollten sich doppelt so viele Frauen als Männer in Sicherheit bringen. Und als 2016 in Kenia wegen einer schweren Dürre zwei Millionen Menschen hungern mussten, waren es jeweils die Frauen, die als letzte Lebensmittel erhielten.
Hinzu kommt, dass klimawandelbedingte Katastrophen häufig die Versorgung mit Mitteln der Familienplanung und den Zugang zu gynäkologischen Untersuchungen oder Geburtshilfe einschränken.
Als wäre das nicht alles schon genug, steigt auch die sexualisierte Gewalt gegenüber Frauen. Zwangsheiraten könnten im globalen Süden wieder zunehmen, weil die Klimakrise den Zugang zu Bildung und Hilfsangeboten stark negativ beeinflusst. Es kommt zu Ernteausfällen, junge Frauen werden vermehrt zu Hause gebraucht, um die Familien zu unterstützen und werden häufiger jung verheiratet oder gegen Vieh verkauft. Es kommt auch dazu, dass (junge) Frauen zu Prostitution gezwungen werden. Dies hat dazu geführt, dass im südlichen Afrika, aufgrund von Dürreperioden, die HIV-Infektionen gestiegen sind. All diese “Maßnahmen” werden von den Familien durchgeführt, um das fehlende Einkommen zu kompensieren und die restliche Familie vor Hunger zu schützen.
Selbst wenn Frauen in Notunterkünften unterkommen, sind sie dort vermehrt Gewaltdelikten ausgesetzt und haben nahezu keine Privatsphäre.
Gerade weil Frauen stärker vom Klimawandel betroffen sind, nehmen sie den Klimawandel stärker als Bedrohung wahr als Männer. Sie setzen sich mehr für den Klimaschutz ein und fordern auch mehr politische Maßnahmen und sind auch bereit, mehr Geld dafür auszugeben. So war es ab dem 20. August 2018 Greta Thunberg, die in Schweden die „Schulstreiks für’s Klima“ startete und damit weltweit die “Fridays For Future”-Bewegung loslöste.
In Deutschland ist vor allem Luisa Neubauer für ihren Aktivismus bekannt und setzt sich auf Demos oder in Talkrunden vor allem mit männlichen Politikern auseinander. Generell sind überproportional viele Frauen an der Protestbewegung beteiligt.
(Quelle: Utopia.de)
Frauen haben insgesamt einen klimafreundlicheren Lebensstil. Sie essen weniger Fleisch und fahren weniger Auto. Oft ist das aber keine bewusste Entscheidung, da sie weniger befugt sind, einen umweltbelastenden Lebensstil zu führen. Eine französische Studie fand vor kurzem heraus, dass Männer 26 Prozent mehr CO₂-Emissionen verursachen als Frauen. Während auf Männer jährlich 5,3 Tonnen CO₂ zurückgehen, sind es bei Frauen 3,9 Tonnen. Die Bereiche Verkehr und Ernährung machen zusammen rund die Hälfte eines durchschnittlichen CO₂-Fußabdruckes aus.
Viele argumentieren, dass Männer mehr Kalorien oder Fleisch benötigen oder allein durch ihren Job mehr CO₂ verbrauchen als Frauen. Dies konnte die Studie allerdings widerlegen. Rechnet man alle sozioökonomischen, biologischen und gesellschaftlichen Unterschiede heraus, bleibt immer noch ein Geschlechterunterschied von 18 Prozent. Für diese restlichen 18 Prozent konnten die Forscher:innen keine Erklärung bieten.
In Ländern, in denen Frauen politisch mehr Mitspracherecht haben, ist jedoch auch die CO₂-Belastung geringer und das Interesse an strukturellen Veränderungen größer. Außerdem zeigen Frauen in ihrem Alltag mehr Engagement, etwa beim Einkauf, bei der Arbeit, bei politischen Wahlen oder beim Engagement in ihren privaten Bereichen.
Leider ist es bisher weltweit so, dass kaum Frauen an den politischen Entscheidungen mitwirken können, da sie bei beispielsweise Klimakonferenzen immer noch unterrepräsentiert sind. Ihre Bedürfnisse werden von den männlichen Entscheidungsträgern stets vernachlässigt. Dementsprechend hätte es einen großen Einfluss, wenn Frauen mehr zu sagen hätten und häufiger bei Entscheidungen beteiligt werden.
Seit Jahrzehnten warnen Expert:innen, dass klassische Geschlechterrollen die Menschen anfälliger für extreme Wetterereignisse machen. Politische Entscheidungsträger haben diese Warnungen lange ignoriert. Heute sind sie gezwungen umzudenken und sich zu fragen, wie sich Ungleichheiten abbauen lassen, die sich anderenfalls immer weiter zu verstärken drohen.
Die Klimakrise bedroht vor allem arme Bevölkerungsschichten, die keinen politischen Einfluss haben. Die meisten Frauen haben kein Mitspracherecht, wenn es um die Diskussion um die Verwendung und Nutzung von Ressourcen oder um grundlegende Entscheidungen geht.
Im Pariser Klimaabkommen von 2015 haben sich die Staatsoberhaupte darauf geeinigt, die globale Erderwärmung auf durchschnittlich 1,5 Grad Celsius über dem vorindustriellen Niveau zu begrenzen. Die Unterzeichner:innen einigten sich zudem auch auf einen “geschlechtergerechten” Ansatz bei der Anpassung an den Klimawandel. Dieser sollte sich an den besten verfügbaren wissenschaftlichen Erkenntnissen orientieren.
Um dieses Ziel zu erreichen, müssten die Systeme verändert werden, die noch immer an alten Ungleichheiten festhalten. Machtverhältnisse müssen neu gedacht werden. Dies würde bedeuten, dass Reichtum und Ressourcen weltweit gleichmäßiger verteilt werden müssen und es eine gerechtere Mitbestimmung und Beteiligung bei umweltpolitischen Themen gibt.
Bisher gibt es allerdings wenig Belege für diesen Wandel, weshalb die Ungleichheit immer noch Tagesordnung ist. Die Beteiligung von Frauen an Anpassungsprojekten ist sehr selten und auch in der nationalen Klimapolitik werden die Bedürfnisse von Frauen nicht genug beachtet.
Die Geschlechtergleichheit wird aber immerhin in vielerlei Hinsicht angestrebt. So ist es beispielsweise eines der 17 Ziele der Sustainable Development Goals (kurz: SDG’s). Durch die UN-Klimakonferenzen gründeten sich auch zwei transnationale Netzwerke: das zivilgesellschaftliche GenderCC – Women for Climate Justice und die Global Gender and Climate Alliance (GGCA).
Abschließend muss jedoch betont werden, dass das persönliche Konsumverhalten von Frauen und Männern einen nicht so großen Einfluss auf das Klima hat wie Unternehmen. Rund 100 Unternehmen machen weltweit bereits 70 Prozent der Treibhausemissionen aus. Somit haben Politik und Wirtschaft den größeren Einfluss.
Außerdem gibt es auch Momente, in denen Männer stärker vom Klimawandel bedroht sind, als Frauen. Dies ist allerdings die Seltenheit. Ein Beispiel ist aber, dass Männer, aufgrund ihres klassischen Rollenbildes, bei Waldbränden länger in ihrem Haus bleiben, um es zu “beschützen”, während sich die Frauen mit dem restlichen Teil der Familie in Sicherheit bringen. Dies ist u. a. auf die toxische Männlichkeit zurückzuführen, aufgrund derer dieses Verhalten von Männern erwartet wird. Dieser Faktor ist natürlich auch nicht gesund. Allerdings ist bewiesen, dass der Klimawandel zu einseitig naturwissenschaftlich und damit stark stereotyp männlich diskutiert wird. Frauen leiden somit insgesamt mehr unter den Folgen der Klimakrise und viele dieser Folgen wurden durch patriarchle Strukturen verursacht.
*** English version ***
Climate crisis: women more affected than men
by Lena Westphal (Sustainability Management)
It is becoming increasingly apparent that in many areas of life there is no equality between women and men. This is often due to the fact that research on certain topics that are relevant to women is lagging behind or is only just beginning to develop. For example, it is known that the climate crisis has more negative effects on women than on men. The federal government’s fourth Gender Equality Report takes up this topic as a focus theme with the title “Equality in the socio-ecological transformation”.
Disclaimer: This blog article refers to the family model of woman, man, possibly child(ren) and refers to a binary gender. I am aware that there are of course and fortunately (!) many different family models and genders and would like to point out that, for example, single women, single parents, women with a disability, trans* women or women in a same-sex relationship are even harder hit by the effects of the climate crisis than heterosexual cis women.
For example, the marginalization of LGBTIQ+ people increases in the event of a disaster. They often experience discrimination when it comes to access to water, food, healthcare and emergency shelters.
Women’s health is more affected by the effects of climate change than men, as they are more likely to suffer from heat-related symptoms such as headaches, reduced performance and sleep disorders. Heatwaves caused by global warming can also lead to complications and even premature births during pregnancy. The scarcity of resources, such as food, also has a greater impact on women, as they are less likely to survive than men. In 2023, for example, 75 percent of all deaths in the heatwave summer were female.
There are also social and political reasons why women are more affected by global warming. The classic role model of a woman, which is still part of our society, is that women first take care of others and only then take care of themselves. Worldwide, women perform more care work than men.
The unequal distribution of care and household tasks makes it difficult for women to adapt to the effects of climate change. They usually have a low-paid job in the family and are therefore dependent on their partner. Overall, they also have less time to inform themselves sufficiently about climate change and its consequences.
Overall, it should be emphasized that this is not just a problem for women in the Global South, but a worldwide problem. After Hurricane Katrina in the USA in 2005, for example, more women than men gave up their jobs due to care work so that they could take better care of their families.
Women also work more frequently in care professions and are directly exposed to the risk of infection, as the coronavirus pandemic has already shown. The climate crisis will lead to further and more frequent pandemics in the long term, and women will again be exposed to an increased risk of infection, as they are increasingly working at the front line in systemically relevant professions. Pandemics also ensure that gender equality is once again at risk, as women are also more likely to homeschool their children than men.
More than two thirds of the studies (68 percent) show that women are exposed to greater health risks as a result of climate change. The pie chart shows the results of 130 studies on climate change and health: 89 studies came to the conclusion that women are more affected than men, 30 studies came to the conclusion that men are more affected than women, and 11 studies came to the conclusion that there is no difference in the extent to which men and women are affected. Globally, women are more likely than men to be affected by climate-related food insecurity and are also more likely to suffer from mental illness or intimate partner violence following extreme weather events.
Worldwide, women are generally more affected by poverty and have less money or property than men. In the global South, women tend to own less land, have less access to agricultural production resources such as equipment, seeds or fertilizer, but also less capital.
Due to the increasing drought, the distance to water sources is increasing. In many cultures, water supply is a matter for women and men usually eat and drink first, so that in the end there is hardly anything left for the women, even though they urgently need the water due to their menstruation. Due to the longer distances, women often set off in the dark or only return at night, which exposes them to an increased risk of sexualized violence.
Women are called upon to do housework earlier, including fetching water. As a result, they have less time and opportunity to gain an education as the distances to water points become ever longer.
Food is becoming scarcer overall due to climatic changes. Women in poorer countries are more at risk of starvation than men, as the scarce food is more likely to be distributed to them.
Women are also at a political disadvantage. In self-sufficient families, the policy means that these families have to eke out a living on increasingly poor soil. As soon as men leave their families as “climate refugees”, the women left behind have to support their families alone, which makes them even more vulnerable.
When extreme weather events occur, women are injured or even die more often than men. Particularly in countries where women have a lower socio-economic status, they rarely leave the house without a male companion, wear clothing that severely restricts their freedom of movement in the event of flooding and are later warned of climate disasters. While men are at work, women are at home taking care of the family and the household. Women often cannot swim either, which makes it almost impossible for them to escape in the event of flooding. In the 2004 tsunami in South East Asia, for example, 70 percent of the fatalities were women.
When Cyclone “Gorki” hit the coast of Bangladesh in 1991, nine times more women lost their lives than men. During the devastating bushfires in Australia in 2009, twice as many women tried to flee to safety as men. And when two million people went hungry due to a severe drought in Kenya in 2016, it was women who were the last to receive food.
In addition, climate change-related disasters often limit the supply of family planning resources and access to gynecological examinations or obstetric care.
As if that wasn’t enough, sexualized violence against women is also on the rise. Forced marriages could increase again in the Global South because the climate crisis is having a major negative impact on access to education and aid. There are crop failures, young women are increasingly needed at home to support their families and are more often married off young or sold for livestock. (Young) women are also forced into prostitution. This has led to an increase in HIV infections in southern Africa due to periods of drought. All these “measures” are carried out by families to compensate for the lack of income and to protect the rest of the family from hunger. Even if women are accommodated in emergency shelters, they are increasingly exposed to violence and have almost no privacy.
Precisely because women are more affected by climate change, they perceive climate change as more of a threat than men. They are more committed to climate protection and also demand more political measures and are prepared to spend more money on them. It was Greta Thunberg, for example, who launched the “School Strikes for the Climate” in Sweden on August 20, 2018, thereby triggering the “Fridays For Future” movement worldwide.
In Germany, Luisa Neubauer in particular is known for her activism and mainly confronts male politicians at demonstrations or in talks. In general, a disproportionately high number of women are involved in the protest movement.
(source: Utopia.de)
Overall, women have a more climate-friendly lifestyle. They eat less meat and drive less. However, this is often not a conscious decision, as they are less empowered to lead an environmentally harmful lifestyle. A French study recently found that men cause 26 percent more CO₂ emissions than women. While men are responsible for 5.3 tons of CO₂ per year, the figure for women is 3.9 tons. The transport and food sectors together account for around half of an average CO₂ footprint.
Many argue that men need more calories or meat or consume more CO₂ than women simply because of their job. However, the study was able to disprove this. If all socio-economic, biological and social differences are factored out, there is still a gender difference of 18 percent. The researchers were unable to provide an explanation for this remaining 18%.
However, in countries where women have a greater political say, carbon pollution is also lower and interest in structural change is greater. Women also show more commitment in their everyday lives, for example when shopping, at work, in political elections or in their private lives.
Unfortunately, women have hardly been able to participate in political decisions worldwide to date, as they are still underrepresented at climate conferences, for example. Their needs are always neglected by male decision-makers. Accordingly, it would have a major impact if women had more say and were more frequently involved in decision-making.
For decades, experts have warned that traditional gender roles make people more vulnerable to extreme weather events. Political decision-makers have long ignored these warnings. Today, they are forced to rethink and ask themselves how inequalities can be reduced, which otherwise threaten to become ever more pronounced.
The climate crisis primarily threatens poor sections of the population who have no political influence. Most women have no say when it comes to discussions about the use and utilization of resources or fundamental decisions.
In the Paris Climate Agreement of 2015, the heads of state agreed to limit global warming to an average of 1.5 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels. The signatories also agreed on a “gender-responsive” approach to adapting to climate change. This should be based on the best available scientific knowledge.
In order to achieve this goal, the systems that still hold on to old inequalities must be changed. Power relations need to be rethought. This would mean that wealth and resources must be distributed more evenly worldwide and that there must be fairer co-determination and participation in environmental policy issues.
So far, however, there is little evidence of this change, which is why inequality is still the order of the day. The participation of women in adaptation projects is very rare and women’s needs are not sufficiently considered in national climate policy.
However, gender equality is still being pursued in many respects. For example, it is one of the 17 goals of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs for short). The UN climate conferences also led to the establishment of two transnational networks: the civil society GenderCC – Women for Climate Justice and the Global Gender and Climate Alliance (GGCA).
Finally, however, it must be emphasized that the personal consumer behavior of women and men does not have as great an impact on the climate as companies. Around 100 companies already account for 70 percent of greenhouse gas emissions worldwide. Politics and business therefore have the greater influence.
There are also times when men are more threatened by climate change than women. However, this is a rarity. One example, however, is that men, due to their traditional role model, stay longer in their house during forest fires to “protect” it, while women take the rest of the family to safety. This is partly due to toxic masculinity, because of which this behavior is expected of men. This factor is of course not healthy either. However, it has been proven that climate change is discussed too one-sidedly in scientific terms and thus in a strongly stereotypically male way. Women are therefore suffering more overall from the consequences of the climate crisis and many of these consequences were caused by patriarchal structures.
Inhaltliche Quellen:
- https://www.bmfsfj.de/bmfsfj/ministerium/berichte-der-bundesregierung/vierter-gleichstellungsbericht-257274
- https://www.aerztinnenbund.de/Frauen_gesundheitlich_vom_Klimawandel.3715.0.2.html
- https://www.dw.com/de/frauen-klimakrise-stärker-betroffen-maenner-geschlechergerechtigkeit-klimagerechtigkeit-klimawandel/a-62092939
- https://dgvn.de/meldung/klimagerechtigkeit-und-geschlecht-warum-frauen-besonders-anfaellig-fuer-klimawandel-naturkatastroph
- https://unwomen.de/klima-und-gender/
- https://www.welthungerhilfe.de/welternaehrung/rubriken/klima-ressourcen/rolle-von-frauen-im-klimaschutz-aufwerten
- https://www.bmz.de/de/themen/frauenrechte-und-gender/gender-und-klima
- https://www.rnd.de/wissen/klimawandel-und-das-maennliche-geschlecht-gibt-es-den-eco-gender-gap-wirklich-Y7LWRBWX7BAAJF3XKFFA2FZ6GA.html
- https://www.genanet.de/themen/klima
- https://www.spiegel.de/wissenschaft/mensch/studie-maenner-verbrauchen-26-mehr-emissionen-als-frauen-fleisch-und-autos-a-a7358f7c-5470-42af-b5ea-8ba8337b5460
- https://www.lse.ac.uk/granthaminstitute/publication/the-gender-gap-in-carbon-footprints-determinants-and-implications/
- https://sites.manchester.ac.uk/global-social-challenges/2022/07/07/corporations-vs-consumers-who-is-really-to-blame-for-climate-change/
Quellen Abbildungen:
- Abbildung 1: https://www.spiegel.de/karriere/care-arbeit-und-die-haeusliche-gehaltsluecke-warum-das-gleiche-nicht-gerecht-ist-a-a64b128d-d206-4360-8246-5b4bdbb11d16
- Abbildung 2: https://www.carbonbrief.org/mapped-how-climate-change-disproportionately-affects-womens-health/
- Abbildung 3: https://www.tagesschau.de/ausland/europa/greta-thunberg-fridays-for-future-100.html
- Abbildung 4: https://utopia.de/markus-lanz-luisa-neubauer-friedrich-merz-klimapolitik_192757/
- Abbildung 5: https://dgvn.de/meldung/klimagerechtigkeit-und-geschlecht-warum-frauen-besonders-anfaellig-fuer-klimawandel-naturkatastroph
Ocean Acidification
Wind, waves, and boat noise: The first four weeks of underwater sound research in Akkeshi, Japan.
This is the first blog from GAME 2026
Learning to listen
What does the ocean sound like? There is the wind moving across Akkeshi Bay, deer grazing in the woods next to the ocean, and the soft rhythm of the waves against the jetty. Moreover, there is a fox foraging along the shore (かわいい。- kawaii), the seagulls` sharp calls from the sky, and the distant hum of fishing boats. And beneath the water surface? There is an entirely different world of sound.
Underwater sound travels faster, farther and often in all directions. The underwater world is constantly active, even though it appears silent to us humans. Tiny larvae drift and swim through the water, searching for a place to settle to become adults. They are guided by chemical cues, light, and sound. What happens if that process is distracted by sounds like boat noise? Will the larvae still settle or will they look for other places?
Four weeks ago, I arrived in Japan, to begin the fieldwork for my Master´s thesis as part of GAME 2026 at the Akkeshi Marine Station (AMS in short).
Akkeshi has a small fishing economy, which is mainly known for oyster farming. The town is remote, windswept, and deeply connected to the sea — making it an ideal natural laboratory for marine research.
Akkeshi is located in eastern Hokkaido, in a remote and largely natural region with extensive wetlands that are rich in birdlife, while the town is surrounded by coastal cliffs and forests. An iconic red bridge leads from the town of Akkeshi to the marine station, which lies within a protected area.
The marine station, where I am based, is located directly at the coast and experiences strong tidal variation both seasonally and daily. From the very first day, it was clear that this project would not only be about data collection, but also about adapting to a new environment — scientifically, culturally, and personally.
My research explores how underwater soundscapes, such as noise from ship engines, interacts with hard-bottom communities. In particular, I will examine whether boat noise affects the formation and early development of these communities. To test this, I will deploy an underwater loudspeaker that plays back boat noise towards PVC settlement panels, which simulate a vertical surface for the settlement of invertebrate larvae. During and after the experiment, I will analyse the composition of the communities that establish on the settlement panels and will compare it to the composition of assemblages that developed in the absence of boat noise.
Over the past four weeks, I have been laying the groundwork for this field experiment by testing the equipment, observing the weather and wave conditions at the experimental site, and building the experimental setup that will later allow me to collect the data for my thesis. Come with me and get a glimpse on how I conduct the preliminary work.
Building the foundation: Preliminary work
GAME projects are usually carried out by two-person teams. However, in 2026 no Japanese student was found for Team Japan and therefore I am working more independently with some support by Jun Hirose, who is an employee at AMS. I also get a lot of help from other people working at the station, including the very kind technicians. To make sure we understand each other about setups and difficult constructions, I established to draw things out to make it easy for everyone to follow my ideas.
The first phase of my stay in Akkeshi has been dedicated almost entirely to tests and preparations. Before any meaningful data collection can begin, it is essential to test how the equipment performs under real-world conditions.
One of the key components of my project is an underwater sound system for recordings and playbacks. I began with testing the hydrophones and the sound playback devices under controlled conditions in the laboratory, e.g. in tanks, before gradually moving to open-water trials. During these tests, I verified signal clarity and noise levels, experimented with different cable configurations, and evaluated how sound propagates in coastal waters.
In addition to the technical setup, I also started with doing preliminary underwater recordings. They will serve as a baseline for assessing acoustic isolation, i.e. making sure that the treatment level that does not include sound playbacks does not receive sounds from the boat noise treatment level.
Designing and testing the experimental frame A milestone in these first weeks was the construction and testing of the experimental frame. This structure is designed to hold the settlement panels and the acoustic equipment in place at specific depths in the water column. It is built from PVC pipes, which are stabilized with ropes and buoys, and is anchored near the pier of the marine station. One of the first tasks was to attach panels to the frame, which will later be used as settlement substrata, but for now the goal was simply to test their stability and positioning.
Field deployment is rarely straightforward as wind, waves, and currents constantly interfere with even the simplest tasks. Lowering the frame into the water required careful coordination, and retrieving it was often even more challenging. During these activities, I spent a significant amount of time on the pier, working close to the water, adjusting ropes, checking connections, and observing whether the setup remains intact over time.
Communication beyond language One unexpected but important aspect of my work here has been communication across language barriers. The technician I work closely with does not speak English, and my Japanese is still very basic. To bridge this gap, I began drawing detailed sketches of the experimental setups.
Every adjustment of the setup, no matter whether it was the placement of a hydrophone, the angle of a panel, or the water depth in which a frame is deployed, was first translated into a visual diagram. Over time, this method proved incredibly effective. It not only improved communication, but also forced me to think more clearly about the design of my experiment.
The experimental site: Knowing nature
A crucial part of my project so far has been documenting the conditions at the experimental site. To make sure that the experimental setup will not be damaged, it was important to get to know the tides, the currents and the weather conditions. At times, harsh weather conditions forced us to take a break from field work. In those moments, I enjoyed the cinematic scenery of sunsets, and I turned to other tasks, such as sanding the settlement panels in order to make their surface more suitable for colonizers.
Life at the marine station
Life at the marine station is a balance between fieldwork and lab work. After long hours outside, I often return to the lab to clean equipment, process preliminary data, or prepare for the next deployment.
I have also spent time helping others with their work, which has been an important part of integrating into the team. Whether assisting with equipment, handling or sharing observations, these interactions have made the experience of working at AMS more collaborative and less isolating. The station itself is modest but well-equipped. It provides everything that is necessary for field-based marine research, and its proximity to the water makes transitions between lab and field seamless.
Surprisingly, Jun Hirose and I got a welcome party from the whole office. It was a great opportunity to talk (or gesture) with other members of the station. And of course, there was great food, cooked by some of the researchers.
Nature and wildlife encounters
While the focus of my project is on underwater acoustics, the environment near the marine station constantly reminds me that this is a living ecosystem. Deer frequently wander near the station, sometimes appearing unexpectedly along the road. On a few occasions, I have even spotted a fox passing by quietly or lying next to the dining area at the guesthouse.
During a weekend break, I took the opportunity to explore Hokkaidō’s nature further to watch birds and seals. Watching seals swimming in the water, while seabirds circled overhead added another dimension to my understanding of the site. These animals are not just part of the scenery, they are also part of the acoustic environment I am studying.
What comes next
In the next phase of the project, I will shift from preparations to the systematic collection of data. With the setup tested and refined, I will run a controlled experiment to analyze whether sound interferes with the settlement of larvae.
What comes next
In the next phase of the project, I will shift from preparations to the systematic collection of data. With the setup tested and refined, I will run a controlled experiment to analyze whether sound interferes with the settlement of larvae.
I already started collecting data when I did recordings for assessing whether the frame that holds the settlement panels, which will not be exposed to boat noise, is acoustically isolated from the frame that holds the speaker.
Fieldwork is rarely smooth. Equipment fails, weather changes quickly, and even simple tasks can take much longer than expected. There have been days when strong winds made it impossible to deploy the setup, and others when technical issues forced me to repeat tests. However, each challenge has also led to small improvements such as better cable management, clearer protocols, and more efficient workflows.
Beyond the data, this experience has been shaped by the place and the people who made it possible. Working here in Akkeshi is a reminder that research is not just about results. It is about a process, adaptation, and observation. It is about learning to listen, not only to underwater soundscapes, but also to the environment and the people around you. I feel very lucky to be able to be here and I appreciate the moments I have been collecting so far and I am looking forward to the next four months. Because sometimes, the most interesting discoveries are not the ones you set out to find, but the ones you encounter along the way.
厚岸、ありがとうございました。
お疲れ様です。
Maximiliane
Wind, waves, and boat noise: The first four weeks of underwater sound research in Akkeshi, Japan.
This post is the last blog of the GAME 2025 project. Unfortunately, it was delayed by several months (the project ended in December 2025), but it was not forgotten. Read now about the extraordinary and dramatic experiences that Andrea and Sarah made in Cabo Verde in 2025.
In April 2025, GAME returned once again to the islands of Cabo Verde, this time with Andrea (Technical University of the Atlantic, Cabo Verde) and Sarah (University of Potsdam, Germany). As in previous years, we were exploring the influence of artificial light at night (ALAN) on coastal organisms. The project in 2025 was supposed to bring more knowledge about its influence on the growth of marine epiphytes.
Cabo Verde comprises 10 main islands and a few islets, which are lined up in an arc in the Northern Atlantic. The archipelago was formed by underwater volcanoes that started to emerge from the depths of the ocean about 20 million years ago. The islands are characterized by a dry landscape that has arid and poorly permeable soils, which are almost infertile, and by rainfalls that do not appear every year. Hence, the inhabitants of the archipelago always found their greatest wealth in the sea. As the westernmost African country, its isolation has led to the evolution of marine species that are unique to the islands, while other species that arrived from elsewhere found favourable conditions here. As a relatively young nation, Cabo Verde has yet to explore much of its biodiversity, as well as the marine ecosystems in its waters. Partnerships between Cabo Verde and Germany, which result in projects such as the one we are participating in in the framework of GAME, are always celebrated as they contribute to the scientific enrichment of the country.
Our project was conducted in collaboration with the OSCM (Ocean Science Center Mindelo). The center is, on the one hand, linked to GEOMAR (GEOMAR Helmholtz Centre for Ocean Research Kiel) in Germany and, on the other hand, to IMar (Instituto do Mar) in Cabo Verde. It is dedicated to oceanographic observations and research, and also acts as a connection point for common research activities and the exchange between international scientific institutions. Laboratory work can, for instance, be carried out by using the center facilities and the available equipment. Our experiment, however, was conducted in the field, because of the need for a constant supply with seaweed spores that mediated the colonization of the substrates we provided by epiphytes.
To meet the specific requirements of our study, Porto Grande Bay, more specifically the Mindelo Marina, was chosen as the study site. As its name suggests, this bay is one of the largest in Cabo Verde, and it is located in the northwest of the island of São Vicente. Its calm and shallow waters made it the ideal site for the study we were planning. Except for the intense sun and very strong wind that we felt during the first months of our field work, the place was one of the most interesting and dynamic ones in Mindelo. We spent our days on pontoon B, in front of the Marina Bistro bar, working from morning to night.
In the mornings, we could smell the aroma of stewed “catchupa” and of the seafood that was served there. In the afternoons, the atmosphere was enlivened by the most famous pop songs played at the Ponte d’Água Hotel. Whenever a familiar song came on, we couldn’t resist singing along: “Kiss me hard before you go, Summertime sadness…” At dawn, everything then became calmer. The water was still, and under the lights of the pier, fish swam in circles and created a silent spectacle. Furthermore, in the months before the nesting season in Cabo Verde, it was common to see sea turtles coming to the surface to breathe. Unfortunately, they were so fast that it was almost impossible to get a photo. So fast that Sarah rarely managed to see them. If it were a game, the score would be: Cabo Verde 7 x 1 Germany.
During our work, we met people, both local and from other countries, who were friendly and willing to help, whether with a screwdriver, a tape measure, or a kayak. They were teaching us how to tie a knot, they took photos and videos of us, were giving us ideas and suggestions, or simply provided us company. However, there were also plenty of curious onlookers, mainly elderly tourists who came from the bar-bistro over to the pier, and were interested in what we were doing.
We started our work with one of the biggest challenges of the project: finding a macroalga that could be suitable for the experiment. This alga would needed to have a leathery texture, a flat and broad surface, and should inhabit the subtidal. This was no easy task for us, because although Cabo Verde has a rich marine biodiversity, the biomass of macroalgal species is limited by the nutrient deficiency in the oligotrophic waters of the archipelago. Hence, macroalgae can only be found in small quantities. Furthermore, as it is a tropical country, this task was further complicated by the fact that the waters are warm and shallow, and such conditions mainly favour encrusting and filamentous macroalgae. We began our endeavor by searching online for inventory lists of marine macroalgae on the island of São Vicente, but this was without success. We then invested in more practical approaches, such as diving and snorkeling. We went to the Laginha Coral Cove accompanied by Professor Guilherme, who is a marine biology enthusiast. There, we found two species of macroalgae, both potentially invasive and possibly belonging to the genus Grateloupia, which were qualified to serve as “living substrates” in our experiment.
We collected several specimens of the two species to hang them into the harbour in Mindelo for a pilot study. This was to test if epiphytes would settle on the macroalgae and whether the macroalgae themselves would survive the conditions in the harbour.
Both species made it into the final round. One of them had the perfect shape, but it was far too rare for our needs, while the other candidate was much more abundant. So, we focused on the second one. A further problem we faced was that the macroalgae we worked with had not been scientifically described for Cabo Verde. This meant that there was no literature that we could have consulted to learn about morphological or physiological traits. Furthermore, we had no idea how the algae would performed at different water depths or during low tide when exposed to air.
After some weeks, however, it became clear that our chosen species were rather trapping sediment on their surface than hosting a healthy community of epiphytes. Actually, even under the microscope, sediment and epiphytes were almost impossible to separate. Our supervisor, Corrine Almeida, suspected that the algae’s branched structure made it a natural sediment trap and this was not ideal for our purposes.
Given the high sediment load and the generally murky water in the harbour, we realized that we needed a new plan. We revisited the idea of using our first, more promising species, but after extensive searching, we had to admit that there simply were not enough specimens.
Due to this problem, we were unable to continue with the experiment, but the GAME programme coordinator, Mark, came up with a suggestion. The idea was to replace the living substrate with an artificial material that could, at least partly, simulate the traits of macroalgae, such as a flexible structure. Initially, we thought of using PVC tarpaulin, but this material has high chemical concentrations, which could affect the attachment of epiphytes. We continued searching in Mindelo until we finally found a silicone cooking mat in a Chinese store. The material was thin and malleable, requiring only to be soaked in drinking water for a few days to make its surface rougher. We bought eight green ones, which, after soaking, were cut into pieces that had the same size as the PVC plates.
For building the set up, we unpacked some materials that were left behind at OSCM by previous GAME teams, tested the LEDs, and cleaned the frames. One frame needed patching, while we built another one from the scratch. Mindelo does not have a giant all-in-one hardware store like the ones you can find in Germany – instead, you need to visit several smaller shops, while explaining every time at the counter what excatly you need. If they do not have it, they’ll usually send you to another store that might have it. After a few visits, the shopkeepers start to recognize you and let you rummage around in their storage rooms to find suitable alternatives.
We brought PVC panels from Germany and hand-cut them into 5 × 12 cm pieces. For the frames, we glued PVC pipes together and used thin ropes to create the inner structure. The panels were then attached to the ropes with cable ties, while the fake algae were sewed onto them with needle and thread.
We then installed the lighting system with the help of Eder, who is a technician at OSCM. All electronics were kept in waterproof dry boxes, and we built wooden arms with metal brackets to hold them in their place on the pontoon. We aimed to create similar light fields for both of our frames: Andrea’s with an intensity of 10–20 lux, while Sarah’s had 20–30 lux. After some trial and error, we managed to tune the LEDs perfectly.
However, the real challenge in June was not the construction – it was the wind. With daily gusts of 25–40 km/h, anything lightweight was instantly blown away and we are proud to say that we only lost one measuring tape to the sea. Along the way, we pulled plenty of harbour trash from the water, but also some unusual finds – like a fully inflated unicorn float. We even managed to recover the lid of our dry box from the seafloor, along with a couple of our caps. Hats, in fact, did not stand a chance in the winds of June and keeping them on our heads required constant hand support, so we eventually gave up.
By early July, just in time for our first experiment, the weather turned calmer. This made deploying the frames with our kayak much easier. Earlier, any pause in paddling would have sent us drifting straight back to the pontoon. The kayak also came in handy for measuring the water depth at the experimental site and for adjusting our mooring lines.
In this moment, we were optimistic: The project was starting to get on track. It seemed that we could finally switch on the autopilot and continue the work as outlined in the GAME 2025 manual. However, first we had to test the different steps of the analytical processes in the laboratory. We collected some of the fake algae that we had placed on the frames as backups in case of losses, put them in freezer bags and packed the freezer bags in larger black bags that we filled with ice and transported them to the laboratory. The first step, i.e. scraping the epiphytes from the substrates, went well, but a problem emerged when we tried to perform vacuum filtration. For this, the suspension of seawater, epiphytes, and sediment was poured into the funnel of the filtration unit, and the device was turned on. After a considerable amount of time, we could see that the volume in the funnel had not changed, because the sediment had clogged the flow of water through the filter. We were once again faced with a new impasse, and this one required a solution within a week. This was because the first experiment had already been running for more than seven days and could only continue for one more week. We tried decanting, but the epiphytes and sediment settled at a similar rate at the bottom of the beaker, making it difficult to separate them. Then we tried sieving through different sized meshes, but in doing so we lost a lot of biomass, what would have compromised our results. We also tried a method involving aliquots, which could have worked, but it took too long to test it a second time.
With no time left, we decided to remove the filtration step and to leave the sediment in our samples, as we simply could not get rid of it. Hence, the freezer bags were already drained at the study site. In the laboratory, the epiphytes were scraped off and directly transferred to test tubes, which were then filled up with ethanol. This method proved to be successful as we obtained chlorophyll a concentrations that were similar to those of the other GAME teams. For the biomass samples, a similar method was used, but their processing required the use of a muffle oven to obtain the ash-free dry weight. As none of the institutions here in Mindelo have such equipment, the samples were transported to Germany to muffle them at GEOMAR.
At this point, we were already thinking about what aspects could be improved in our second experiment, which was already underway. Furthermore, Sarah recently completed her first dive, spotting a nurse shark, plenty of fish, and sea turtles. She was hoping to spend more evenings at the beach in the coming weeks, playing volleyball and enjoying live music, especially during the Baía das Gatas Festival—one of the largest festivals in the country—which was approaching. In the words of our advisor, “The project is now running smoothly.” However, no one expected that in August a country that rarely receives rain throughout the year would be shaken by the biggest storm in living memory.
In the early hours of August 11th, storm Erin arrived without warning, causing material losses and, sadly, claiming the lives of nine people on the island of São Vicente. During the night, the scene was one of horror, with streets turned into rivers, lightning illuminating the entire city, and people desperately fighting for their lives and those of their loved ones as rainwater flooded their homes. In the morning, it was then possible to get a real sense of what had happened. Buildings had been knocked down, cars carried out to sea, shops destroyed, all caused by the force of the rainwater. The Mindelo micro-watershed, characterized by a mountainous terrain and a rugged topography, allowed the rainwater that fell on the city to flush to Porto Grande Bay, resulting in an exacerbated discharge of muddy water accompanied by trash. Experiment 2, which had already been in the water for a week, was canceled as the conditions in the bay no longer met the requirements for conducting an experiment. Square kilometers of water that had been crystal clear had turned brown and opaque, and we had no idea how long these conditions would last.
Soon after the storm, it was decided that the team would split up: Sarah would go to Finland to continue her project with the GAME team there, and Andrea would stay here to continue as soon as conditions had improved. A month passed, and the bay was slowly returning to its normal colour, but then another rain came and turned it brown again. Then it was too late to repeat experiment 2. But all is not lost. In January 2026, after we had completed the last phase of the project at GEOMAR in Kiel, Andrea considered to continue with the experimental work. At this time, the rainy season in Cabo Verde was over, and the water was still at mild temperatures.
The unforgettable catastrophe of August 11th 2025 in São Vicente allowed us to speculate on the origin of the mud/sediment that affected our experiment. The sediment that accumulated on the substrates probably came from the muddy water that floods Porto Grande Bay every year during the rainy season. Somehow—possibly due to the regular entry and exit of ferries from the port—the sediment gets resuspended frequently and travels through the water column by the forces of tidal currents and others. At least one riddle was solved.
Have you ever seen a sleek, brown-and-white bird hover above the ocean, fold its wings and drop into the water like a cannonball, only to surface seconds later with a fish in its grip? If so, you have probably seen an osprey.
A water-loving bird of prey
Ospreys are birds of prey, also known as raptors. Birds of prey are carnivorous predators that actively hunt and feed on other animals. However, unlike most birds of prey, the osprey’s diet consists of approximately 99% live fish, including catfish, trout and mackerel. Because of their feeding habits, ospreys, also called sea hawks, have unique traits that make them elite hunters of the sea.
Structure and hunting
When ospreys spot a fish, they dive from nearly 100 feet in the air. During the dive, they close their nostrils, called nares, to prevent water from entering.
Ospreys are the only birds of prey that can dive feet-first into water, allowing them to form a streamlined shape that helps them pierce the surface and protect their heads. Their dense, oily feathers act like a wetsuit, keeping them water-resistant during dives.
Once they make contact with prey, they use their reversible outer toes and barbed foot pads, called spicules, to grip the slippery scales of the fish.
After securing their catch, ospreys use their nearly six-foot wingspan to generate the lift needed to carry fish that can weigh nearly as much as they do out of the water.
Finally, once airborne, the osprey rotates the fish to point headfirst, an aerodynamic adjustment that reduces wind resistance on the flight back to the nest.
Get Ocean Updates in Your Inbox
Sign up with your email and never miss an update.
Habitat and breeding
Because of their dependence on fish, ospreys always live within sight of water. They typically build their nests atop dead trees or man-made structures along harbors and bays, such as channel markers, duck blinds and utility poles.
Both parents help construct the nest. These large structures, sometimes exceeding 300 pounds, are built with sticks and lined with materials like moss and seaweed.
Ospreys breed across every continent except Antarctica, inhabiting ocean coastlines, saltwater marshes, lagoons, estuaries, river mouths and even coral reefs.
Osprey pairs incubate an average of three eggs for roughly one month before they hatch. Chicks then remain in the nest for about 55 days before fledging, the stage in a bird’s life when it develops its feathers and wings enough to leave the nest and fly for the first time.
Why are ospreys important for our ocean?
Ospreys serve as living indicators of ocean health. Because they sit at the top of the marine food chain, they are highly sensitive to pollution and changes in fish populations. A decline in osprey nesting success can signal pollution, overfishing or habitat degradation.
That is why at Ocean Conservancy, we are working to address the ocean’s biggest threats, from plastic pollution to the climate crisis. But we cannot do this work alone. We need advocates like you to protect ospreys and all marine wildlife. Please take action and help us defend our ocean today.
The post Osprey: The Ocean’s Most Specialized Bird of Prey appeared first on Ocean Conservancy.
DeBriefed 29 May 2026: Europe’s ‘mind-boggling’ May | Indian heat deaths | Nigeria’s solar mini-grids
Q&A: How can African electricity access power jobs not just lightbulbs?
AI boom means US is now ‘investing more’ in fossil-fuel power than China
-
Climate Change10 months ago
Guest post: Why China is still building new coal – and when it might stop
-
Greenhouse Gases10 months ago
Guest post: Why China is still building new coal – and when it might stop
-
Greenhouse Gases2 years ago嘉宾来稿：满足中国增长的用电需求 光伏加储能“比新建煤电更实惠”
-
Climate Change2 years ago嘉宾来稿：满足中国增长的用电需求 光伏加储能“比新建煤电更实惠”
-
Climate Change2 years ago
Bill Discounting Climate Change in Florida’s Energy Policy Awaits DeSantis’ Approval
-
Renewable Energy7 months agoSending Progressive Philanthropist George Soros to Prison?
-
Carbon Footprint2 years agoUS SEC’s Climate Disclosure Rules Spur Renewed Interest in Carbon Credits
-
Greenhouse Gases11 months ago
嘉宾来稿：探究火山喷发如何影响气候预测