Quick Key Facts
- There are 2,600 landfills for municipal solid waste (MSW) in the U.S.
- The average person generates 4.9 pounds of MSW each day, and by 2050 global waste generation is expected to increase by 73% from 2020 levels.
- Modern sanitary landfills are not merely open repositories for waste, but have many complex components, including a composite liner, collection systems for methane and leachate, and environmental monitoring systems.
- In the absence of light, oxygen and the necessary bacteria, it can take decades for food to break down completely in a landfill, producing methane as it slowly decomposes.
- Landfills are the third largest source of methane — a greenhouse gas that’s 25% more potent than CO2 — emissions in the U.S.
- In 2018, 600 million tons of construction and demolition debris were generated, which is more than twice the amount of MSW.
- The documented adverse health outcomes correlated with living near landfills include higher risk of cancer and birth defects in infants.
- A 1983 study conducted by Congress’s Government Accountability Office found that in eight southeastern states, 75% of hazardous waste landfill sites were located in communities that were primarily Black, Latine and low-income.
What Is a Landfill?
Most of us barely have to think about our trash. We throw it in a bin, take the bag to the curb, then the garbage truck comes and takes it away. Pretty quickly, our waste becomes invisible to us, but it has to end up somewhere.
Waste comes from many different streams — households, industrial settings, workplaces, medical facilities, etc. — and our current system for trash and garbage disposal primarily entails burying it underground. In the U.S., waste generated by homes and businesses is most commonly sent to landfills: huge repositories in the earth to be filled with trash and covered over. The first modern sanitary landfill was created in California in 1937, but the practice became more widely adapted in the 1960s and 70s as waste production rose, and municipalities sought ways to limit unsanitary waste disposal. In 1976, the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act was passed and created requirements for landfills to protect surrounding environments. Now, there are more than 2,600 landfills for municipal solid waste (MSW) in the U.S., a waste category that encompasses things like wood, paper, textiles, furniture, glass, plastic, some electronics and more.
Why Do We Have Landfills?
We generate huge amounts of waste and we’re only creating more. Single-use plastics and highly wasteful industries like fast fashion have become ubiquitous in practically every area of our lives. Trash generation has more than tripled since the 1960s, resulting in a current average of 4.9 pounds of MSW generated per person per day. With 11.2 billion tons of MSW produced every year, we need somewhere to put it, and landfills provide that solution.
Our increased waste is also tied to population growth and urbanization. The more the population grows, the greater our demand for manufactured products and materials, and the more we depend on landfills. According to the World Bank, global waste generation is expected to increase by 73% from 2020 levels by 2050.
The U.S. in particular generates a great deal of waste. Despite making up only 4% of the global population, the U.S. is responsible for 12% of the planet’s trash. It has historically exported its waste to other countries to handle, but in recent years, China, Malaysia, Thailand and Vietnam have put bans in place on imported waste, further increasing the need for domestic repositories for trash, such as landfills.
While some waste can get recovered or recycled — and some of it is burned — the majority is sent to landfills. In 2018, 69 million tons of MWS was recycled and 25 million tons was composted, which amounts to about 32.1% of all MWS. About 3 million tons was combusted, leaving 146 million tons — half of the total — to be sent to landfills. In the absence of large-scale municipal recycling and composting programs, waste is thrown away when it could have been diverted to other streams. Our recycling system, however, isn’t perfect either — ultimately, only 9% of plastics gets recycled. With bans on our junk being imported to other countries to deal with — leaving about 19,000 shipping containers worth of plastic recycling with nowhere to go every month — much of this waste is being sent to domestic landfills instead.
Are There Different Types of Landfills?
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Different types of landfills exist for different types of waste, as categorized by the EPA. All are supposed to meet nationwide criteria established under the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA), which sets forth requirements for landfills in the absence of state programs including location restrictions, requirements for liners and toxin collection/removal systems, and required operating practices.
Solid Waste Landfills
Municipal Solid Waste Landfills (MSWLFs) are primarily for the waste that’s generated in our homes, schools, hospitals and businesses, as well as some nonhazardous materials from industry and construction. There are about 2,600 MSWLFs in the U.S., managed by the individual states they reside in. MSW is usually brought to transfer stations in municipalities, then transported on large, long-distance trucks to MSWLs.
Bioreactor landfills also fall under this category, and are used for degrading organic waste quickly. In these landfills, liquids are added to help bacteria break the waste down using either aerobic or anaerobic techniques.
The Yolo County Landfill Bioreactor in California was built to accelerate the decomposition of waste and produce renewable energy in 5 to 10 years. Yolo County
Industrial Waste Landfills are used for commercial and institutional waste. For example, Construction and Demolition Debris Landfills are repositories for heavy and bulky materials like wood, concrete, drywall, salvaged components of buildings like plumbing and windows, metal and glass generated during construction and demolition of roads, bridges and buildings. This accounts for a large amount of waste in the U.S. — in 2018, 600 million tons of C&D debris were generated, which is more than twice the amount of MSW. Demolition itself accounts for 90% of all C&D waste.
Coal Combustion Residual Landfills fall under the Industrial Waste category too, housing the nearly 130 million tons of coal ash generated every year from the burning of coal in power plants. After a large coal ash spill in Tennessee in 2008 flooded 300 acres of land and got into two rivers, the EPA established that these materials must be disposed of in such landfills.
Hazardous Waste Landfills
Hazardous Waste landfills are exactly what they sound like: repositories for only hazardous waste that is flammable, toxic or chemically reactive, including things like household cleaners, chemical waste, paint and aerosols. These types of landfills are the most regulated by the EPA, and are monitored even after their closure for toxic leachate.
Open Dump Landfills
When we talk about landfills, we’re typically referring to “sanitary landfills” — that is, municipal landfills that are regulated and controlled. However, open dump landfills are common in many areas of the Global South, and are used by about 70% of countries for disposing MSW. Without municipal waste disposal programs, these dumps are where trash often ends up.
Because these landfills typically aren’t regulated or controlled, they’re more likely to cause fires, attract pests and pollute the surrounding area. The toxic gases they produce are also not contained, so methane is released into the nearby environment. Water contamination is a primary problem around open dump landfills. Without groundwater monitoring systems in place, toxins make their way into groundwater and nearby drinking water, which has the potential to transmit infection and disease.
Basic Components and Operations of a Landfill
Open dumping is illegal in the U.S., and landfills must follow certain design and operation guidelines as established under the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA), although they’re created and managed state-by-state.
The major components of sanitary landfills include the following:
- Leachate collection system. Leachate is the liquid that percolates through the landfill, picking up toxins as it moves. Once it reaches the bottom of the landfill, it’s collected by perforated tubes and pumped out into a collection area, and then a holding pond where it’s treated to remove the harmful toxins.
- Plastic liner system (or “composite liner”). The liner — created from a layer of compacted clay and specific types of plastic — is meant to keep the landfill completely sealed so groundwater and soil aren’t contaminated by leachate.
- Cells are the areas where trash is dumped and compacted, allowing landfills to be filled in a segmented manner. Every day, waste is tipped into the active cell, which gets mechanically compacted. Layers of soil are laid down to cover the trash at intervals, and help to prevent odor. When the cell becomes full, another one is started.
- Stormwater drainage systems collect the rainwater that lands on the landfill, move it to drainage ditches, and then to collection ponds.
- Methane collection systems are needed to collect the methane — a potent greenhouse gas — that forms during the decomposition of organic waste. Landfills are among the largest sources of methane in the U.S., and collection systems prevent it from being released into the air. Wells, pipes and pumps collect the methane, where it’s then piped to a facility that processes it and removes impurities. From there, the refined methane can be distributed for such uses as vehicle fuel and electricity. About 500 MSW landfills collect methane for energy in this way.
The Pioneer Crossing Landfill in Berks County, Pennsylvania uses methane gas, a byproduct of the decomposition of waste, to produce electricity for the local utility company. J.P. Mascaro & Sons
- Environmental monitoring systems monitor the groundwater, storm water, and gas around landfills. Pipes go down into the groundwater to find whether they’ve become warmer or more acidic, which could mean that leachate is escaping and getting into the landfill’s surrounding environment.
- The Cap seals the top of the landfill. Usually, a layer of compacted soil or clay is put down, then layers of fabric and plastic before a 2-foot layer of soil (sometimes followed by more inches of topsoil) is put down so vegetation can grow on top of it.
How Does Waste Act Inside a Landfill?
Waste acts much differently inside a landfill than it would in your trash can, or when merely left out in the open. Different types of waste also act differently, posing unique problems depending on their makeup.
Organic Waste
What’s so bad about putting food in a landfill? It’ll just break down eventually, right? Not exactly.
Food is the largest category of landfilled material, according to the EPA, accounting for about 24%. The dark, anaerobic — that is, oxygen-free — environment of a landfill means that the insects and microorganisms needed to properly break down these materials aren’t present. Decomposition thus happens much, much slower, and releases a lot of methane as a byproduct. In a landfill, it can take decades for food to break down completely. By some estimates, a head of lettuce won’t completely decompose for 25 years. In other cases, food may not decompose at all.
Plastics
In landfills, most polymers and plastics remain “unchanged,” according to a 2022 study. Abundant evidence shows that plastic never really degrades, but rather breaks down into smaller and smaller pieces, eventually creating microplastics. The forces and environmental conditions of landfills — like gas, the pH of leachate, high salinity, temperature fluctuation, high pressure, etc. — can cause plastics to fragment into microplastics that can then be transported out of landfills in leachate and pollute nearby areas. Microplastic abundance in landfill refuse is between 20,000 and 91,000 items/kg — higher than the concentration in sewage sludge and agricultural soil. Therefore, when you throw a piece of plastic in a bag of landfill-bound trash, that doesn’t guarantee it’ll remain sealed off from the environment forever.
Energy Recovery in Landfills
Sometimes after a landfill is capped, the gases that form within it over time are vented out for energy recovery efforts. These gases can be used to generate electricity or as medium-Btu fuel, and have uses for vehicle fuel, pipeline gas, industrial and institutional buildings, and creating electricity for the grid. They’re recovered using a series of wells and vacuum systems that direct it to a collection area, after which it’s processed and can then be used. About 68% of all landfill gas (LFG) projects is for generating electricity, and 16% is used to offset another fuel, like fracked gas and coal. Another 16% is used to make renewable natural gas (RNG), a high-Btu gas that can be used instead of fossil natural gas.
Why Are Landfills a Problem?
On the surface, landfills seem like a logical solution to our waste — if we have nowhere else to put it, why not bury it? Landfills do, however, present serious and potentially life-threatening risks to nearby communities and the environment.
Location
Federal and state regulations mandate where landfills can be built, placing restrictions on building near wetlands or flood zones without certain performance standards in place. In some states, they can’t be put near bodies of water at all. But many landfills are poorly managed, leaving them susceptible to environmental conditions and leading to pollution. Landfills are also associated with poorer quality of life when placed near residential communities, discussed further in the next section.
Soil Pollution
Like water moving through coffee grounds, rainwater moving through landfills becomes saturated with the toxins inside the trash, eventually reaching the bottom as leachate. Some of this liquid does get collected by the leachate collection system, but if there are any holes in the lining, it can easily escape into the surrounding environment. Nearby soil is destroyed by the toxic chemicals, impacting the ability of plants to grow there and threatening the biodiversity of the area.
Air Pollution
Air quality also suffers around landfills. Particulates, dust and other air pollutants can escape from landfills. Vinyl chloride, ethyl benzene and toluene, are just some of the hazardous air pollutants emitted from MSW landfills. Respiratory problems — among other adverse health conditions — have been linked to landfill-related air pollution.
Water Pollution
When landfill leakages occur and leachate gets into groundwater, it becomes contaminated with toxins in industry and household waste, as well as electronics, which contain mercury, cadmium and lead. Ammonia is often in leachate, and produces nitrate. High concentrations of nitrate in ecosystems causes eutrophication, a process by which a high nutrient concentration in water leads to an explosion of plant life and algal growth, creating “dead zones” devoid of oxygen. Besides ammonia, leachate can also transport bacteria and heavy metals into groundwater, potentially contaminating drinking water.
Landfill Gas and Greenhouse Gases
Landfill gas (LFG), formed from the breakdown of organic waste inside the landfill, is mostly methane and CO2 (90-98%), but also contains nitrogen, oxygen, ammonia, hydrogen, and sulfides, among others. Its makeup depends on the specific conditions and age of the landfill, as well as temperature and water content, but some landfills can produce gas for up to 50 years.
Methane is a primary cause for concern in LFG, formed from the slow decomposition of organic matter in the airtight, anaerobic conditions of the landfill. Landfills are the third largest source of methane emissions in the U.S., and for a greenhouse gas that’s 25% more potent than CO2, this has major implications for global climate change. Methane is also highly flammable. In March 2022, a massive fire started at a landfill site outside of Delhi, India, releasing toxins into the air. The fire, unfortunately, came right on the heels of an analysis stating that New Delhi was already the most polluted capital in the world.
Besides its climate-warming components, landfill gases can also get into structures near the landfill. They come up through the soil in a process called “soil vapor intrusion,” collecting in poorly-ventilated areas and polluting the indoor air of nearby buildings.
Human Health
These gases, pollutants and toxins impact the health of people who live near landfills. Open or poorly-managed landfills can lead to drinking water contamination, thereby transmitting diseases and causing infection. Documented adverse health outcomes include higher risk of cancer and birth defects in infants. Trichloroethylene (TCE) is just one carcinogen associated with leachate, entering the soil and groundwater near landfills. Ammonia and hydrogen sulfide are also harmful to humans and can cause coughing, difficulty breathing, and trigger asthma, headaches, nausea, and irritation in the eyes, nose and throat. For those who live near waste lagoons of landfills, adverse health outcomes are an especially serious problem.
Why Are Landfills an Environmental Justice Issue?
It has long been the case that landfills are constructed more often near communities of color and low-income neighborhoods. A 1983 study conducted by Congress’s Government Accountability Office found that in eight southeastern states, 75% of hazardous waste landfill sites were located in communities that were primarily Black, Latine and low-income. This puts marginalized communities at greater health risk. The proximity of landfills to housing also keeps property values low, which can make it hard for residents to sell their property and escape the health hazards.
What Can We Do?
Minimize Waste
In the simplest terms, to reduce our dependence on landfills, we need to reduce our waste. Diverting our waste through recycling and composting can keep waste out of landfills, as can just using less stuff altogether.
The recycling system in the U.S. is far from perfect. Due to a combination of many factors — including the un-recyclability of many materials, poor waste systems and lack of recycling systems in some areas — only about 9% of plastic actually gets recycled. However, when done properly, taking part in recycling programs keeps these materials out of landfills. Composting at home or through municipal programs is another important step, and is possible no matter where you live. An estimated 8-10% of yearly GHG emissions are associated with unconsumed food, and 30-40% of our national food supply is wasted every year. Composting keeps that organic waste from entering landfills in the first place, where it’ll decompose and produce methane.
Because construction and demolition are huge sources of landfill waste, it’s also crucial that we reduce their waste materials by preserving existing buildings rather than constructing new ones, or by reusing and repurposing existing materials.
Legislative Action
Many of these solutions might seem like they’re out of our hands. How are we as individual people supposed to create a better global recycling system? How are we supposed to redistribute construction materials so they aren’t wasted? We can stop using single-use plastics on our own, but how can we make that change on a larger scale? How can we as individuals create a more just and sustainable MSW system?
Voting isn’t a silver bullet for all of our problems, but it’s an important tool we have in bringing about change. Vote for local and federal legislators who have platforms based on environmental action and justice, including the implementation of sustainable integrated waste management on a larger scale. Better-managed and engineered facilities for waste that meet environmental requirements and aren’t placed in sensitive areas is an important step. New York City — where residential composting is now mandatory – is one success story, and shows how large-scale composting solutions can be implemented by people in power. There are models for other ways of handling our waste. In Sweden, for example, 0% of MSW ends up in landfills, due in part to good recycling infrastructure and biological treatment of waste.
Coming up with other uses for the land that landfills occupy has been another topic of conversation. Many landfills in the U.S. have been identified as promising locations for solar farms, and many have already been built, using that land to create clean, renewable energy.
Takeaway
Landfills aren’t merely dumping grounds for our trash, but rather are complex, regulated structures with many components. Soil, air, and water pollution is just one set of issues associated with landfills, along with greenhouse gas emissions, injustices on nearby communities, and steep costs to human health. Creating a more just and sustainable system of waste management that minimizes our reliance on landfills — and makes the landfills we do have better-engineered, better-managed, and better-monitored – will be an effort that incorporates both personal action and large-scale legislation, and changes in how we view and handle waste in our culture.
The post Landfills 101: Everything You Need to Know appeared first on EcoWatch.
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Fall is already such a magical time – leaves changing colors, crisp air, apple orchards, pumpkin patches. Unfortunately, it’s also one of the most marketed times of the year.
And they just keep trying to push it on us sooner. I’ve seen fall drinks and decor marketed as early as July.
Truth is, you don’t need a new sweater or pumpkin spice everything to enjoy fall. You need to embrace the season’s magic. Dare I say, whimsy.
Whimsy has been trending, and while I love the idea of it, I’ve also noticed it being repackaged into something brands can sell. Which kind of defeats the purpose?
By definition, whimsy is something ‘freaky, odd, off-beat’ – not exactly something you can buy en masse. True whimsy isn’t performative or sellable. It’s a state of being, a feeling.
Being whimsical should come from your own imagination. Learning new hobbies, being ok with being bad at things, infusing more fun into your days in ways that make you slow down. Even better if it gets you out of the house, into nature, and socializing with friends, family or community.
Here are some whimsical fall activities that will get you off your phone and into the world.
take a nature walk – but with a twist
Going leaf peeping around your neighborhood is a simple way to connect with the outdoors. But if you want to add some whimsy into it, why not challenge yourself to find certain colors, patterns or textures?
It’s fun to take a little journal with you and sketch items of interest you find – maybe it’s a beautiful tree, a squirrel burying their nuts, a field of asters and goldenrod. Taking time to notice is pure magic.
Plant blindness is real – challenge yourself to get familiar with the flora around you. Check out a library book all about native plants and see if you can spot any on your walk.
You may be surprised to learn how many plants are invasive (burning bush is a big one here in Maine!).
Having a fall scavenger hunt is also a fun idea you can get your friends involved in. Challenge them to find an oak leaf, acorns, crabapples – whatever type of fall flora is in your area – and see who can find them first!
write gratitude letters to your loved ones
Snail mail is making a comeback, so why not write to those you care most about? Sometimes it can be hard to say the things we mean in person. But writing helps us sit with our feelings and work through them.
If you need ideas, why not write them:
- Reasons why you love them
- Your best memory together
- How much you appreciate them
- Plans you’re excited to do together
- What you admire about them
Who wouldn’t want to receive a heart-felt letter in the mail? You can make it extra special by slipping in a small little trinket – like a bird feather, a pressed flower, your favorite tea, or a packet of seeds.
And no – you don’t need any fancy stationery to do this. Make it your own by simply using some computer or scrap paper and upcycling an empty envelope. You can decorate it with colored pencils and markers if you like.
join a knitting circle
Who needs to buy a fall sweater when you can knit one? Consider finding a knitting (or crocheting) community in your town you can join. Often times they’ll meet up to exchange supplies and knit together.
Challenge yourself to knit something that pays homage to fall. Whether that be a pretty fall color (think gem-tones like ruby red, golden yellow, etc.), or knitting leaves and/or mushroom patterns, the choices are endless.
Yarn swaps are also growing in popularity – if you can’t find one, create one yourself!
All you have to do is encourage people to meet up at a public place (a park is nice) and bring any yarn supplies they’d like to donate.
And when all else fails – ask your grandmother! She may know a thing or two about knitting, crocheting, sewing, or embroidery. And how fun and cozy would it be to knit something together?
RELATED: Sewing Machine For Beginners: How to Get Started (And Why It’s a Sustainable Skill to Learn)
host a fall-themed cafe at home
Does your friend group love to visit cafes? Why not host a little cafe at home? Put your baking skills to the test and make some cozy fall inspired recipes.
Some drink and recipe ideas:
- Pumpkin spice cinnamon rolls
- Apple cider donuts
- Mulled apple cider
- Chai lattes
- Pumpkin spice coffee
Of course, if you’re not a baker you can still participate by asking your friends to bake some goodies to bring. Or grabbing some fresh pastries from your local farmers market.
You can display the goodies on your dining room table, countertops, or island. Just make sure you have to-go boxes at the ready (or encourage your friends to bring their own)! You don’t want anything going to waste.
Leftovers? Eat them yourself or share with your community. Your neighbors might appreciate a fresh cinnamon roll – and it’s a great way to start a conversation.
host a fall-themed craft night
Whether you make fairy homes, carved pumpkins, or leaf garlands – it’ll be a night to remember! Gather your friends and choose a theme for the night that revolves around fall.
Even better if you’re able to find all your materials locally (aka through foraging or from a farm stand) or thrift them. Thrift stores have tons of decorations, art supplies, and fabrics on hand at much cheaper prices.
Last fall I decorated a pumpkin with leaves and compostable glue (pictured above). I thought the glue would dry clear…but hey, it was a fun experiment. Just goes to show – don’t be afraid to be bad at something or make mistakes! That’s part of the fun.
The craft you pick will depend on your interests and skill levels, but you can’t go wrong with a paint and sip night.
The challenge? Paint a fall scene (be it an autumnal forest, an apple orchard or a pumpkin patch). Best painting wins something that fits with the theme – homemade apple sauce or an apple pie scented candle works.
go on a spontaneous adventure
Why not go on an unplanned day trip and see where it takes you? Maybe you’ll find a cute cafe to stop inside? A cozy locally owned bookstore? A family farm selling homemade apple pies?
Walking or biking around town will help you slow down and see spots you might’ve missed while driving. Plus it’s a great way to admire any changing leaves.
If you prefer a little more structure to your adventure, make a whole day of it. Even better if you gather a few friends or family to join in on the fun.
Here are some fun fall activities you can do as a group:
- Go or apple and/or pumpkin picking
- Visit a corn maze
- Go on a ghost tour
- Tour old mansions or graveyards (if your city allows it)
- Have a cozy fall picnic
- Take a hike
- Tell spooky stories around a bonfire
- Go stargazing (take a blanket and thermos!)
RELATED: Ultimate Fall Bucket List: Budget Friendly + Printable Bingo Card
What are some ways you’re bringing whimsy into your life this fall? Let me know in the comments below!
The post 6 Whimsical Fall Activities To Get You Off Your Screen appeared first on Going Zero Waste.
These brands have all types of sustainable socks for just about all of your footwear or around-the-house needs, from no-shows and performance-ready ankle socks to comfy crew-length and cozy knee-high socks.
I originally wrote this guide about four years ago, and I must say that sustainable socks have upped their game since then. We’ve been able to raise the bar on what it takes to get included in this guide.
What Qualifies as (More) Sustainable Socks?
There are several criterion I’ve used to determine the brands in this guide. Some brands meet several of these criteria and some even meet all of the criteria below.
- Use of at least 70% natural and organic materials, like organic cotton, hemp, and organic wool
- Uses certified organic materials and sources from certified GOTS (Global Organic Textile Standard) factories and/or Fair Trade factories
- Minimal to no use of synthetic fibers, preferring recycled when there are some synthetics used
- Use of either no dyes, natural dyes or low impact dyes
- Responsibly manufactured, ideally locally made or produced in fair trade environments
You’ll find that most of the sustainable socks in this guide do have a small percentage of synthetics for some stretch. (Though there are three brands with 100% organic cotton socks — check them out below!) I like to use a Guppyfriend Washing Bag to prevent the microplastics from synthetic textiles from being released into our waterways.
In case you have sensitive skin or want a pair of organic socks with an even lower environmental impact, there are also several brands with dye-free sock options.
As mentioned, the brands featured in this guide have all types of socks whether you’re looking for breathable moisture-wicking socks to play tennis in or comfy socks to cuddle up and say warm with. However if you’re looking for more substantial slippers, my guide to eco-friendly and ethical slippers will be a better bet.
The guide features affiliate links. As always, we only feature brands that meet high standards for sustainability that we love — and that we think you’ll love too!
Where to Find Sustainable and Organic Socks
1. Cottonique
Best for: latex-free organic cotton socks for sensitive skin
Materials: 100% GOTS-Certified Organic Cotton
Price: $18 for Kids (3 pairs) | $23-$28 for Adults (2 pairs)
Categories: Quarter, Crew, Ankle, Kids
Cottonique is the only brand I’ve found so far that sells exclusively 100% organic cotton socks. Founded by and designed for individuals with skin sensitivities, Cottonique’s socks are free of latex, spandex, or any other synthetic stretch.
The socks are also OEKO-TEX Standard 100 certified and sewn in the brand’s owned GOTS- and B Corp-certified factory in the Philippines.
I tried out the brand’s crew-length socks and found them to be quite comfortable, and I appreciated the ribbed detail. Without elastic for stretch, they fit snug in order to stay in place, so it’s important to get the right size! I wear a shoe size 7.5-8 and the medium was perfect.
2. Q for Quinn
Best for: soft, dye-free organic cotton socks
Materials: 98 – 100% Organic Cotton
Price: Kids’ from $10 | Adults from $15 / Pair
Categories: Ankle, Crew, and Trouser Socks
Made from 98% GOTS-certified organic cotton (with one pair of socks made of 100% cotton), Q for Quinn’s socks are breathable and super soft. One reviewer calls them the “softest socks I’ve ever worn!” and hundreds of other customers giving five-star reviews seem to agree.
Q for Quinn also has organic dye-free adult and kids’ socks perfect for sensitive skin.
3. Maggie’s Organics
Best for: 100% merino wool socks
Materials: 73% – 99.8% Organic Cotton | 60 – 100% Organic Merino Wool
Price: From $8.50 / Pair
Categories: Footie, Ankle and Crew Socks; plus Allergy, Recovery, and Diabetic
Sourcing GOTS-certified organic fibers and knitting all of their socks in the US, Maggie’s Organics is the real deal when it comes to sustainably-made socks.
The company is also committed to “Real Fair Trade” — they invest in the wellbeing of their farmers and suppliers and are on a journey to become employee-owned.
4. Rawganique
Best for: 100% natural fiber socks (cotton, linen, and wool)
Materials: 100% Organic Cotton, 100% Hemp, and 100% Wool Options
Price: From $12 / Pair
Categories: Anklet, Crew, Knee-High, and Dress Socks
If you’re looking for plastic-free socks, you will love Rawganique. The brand has several options of 100% natural fiber socks that are free of polyester, spandex, or nylon. Select from breathable 100% organic cotton socks, temperature-regulating 100% linen socks, or cozy 100% wool socks.
There are also several options of organic socks blended with a bit of synthetics for some stretch. These options will likely be more suitable for sport and hiking use.
5. Organic Basics
Best for: core-color basics with recycled synthetic blends
Materials: 70 – 75% Organic Cotton
Price: From $14 for 2-Pack
Categories: No-Show, Ankle, Crew, and Knee-High Socks
Focused on only the essentials — and doing them well — Organic Basics creates a range of quality organic socks in core colors like black, gray, blue and white. While these (more) sustainable socks do contain a percentage of synthetics, the majority of the synthetic content is recycled. I also appreciate that the product pages suggest a cooler washing temperature of 30C since clothing care and cleaning can make up a significant portion of a product’s total impact.
6. PACT
Best for: GOTS-certified organic no-show socks
Materials: 75 – 83% Organic Cotton
Price: From $14 for 2-Pack
Categories: No-Show and Crew Socks
PACT’s organic cotton no-show socks are made in a Global Organic Textile Standard certified factory. The no-show pairs come in basic black, white, and tan as well as some cute prints. They feature a new design and silicone grips to make sure they stay in place. That said, the socks unfortunately only come in one size — some of the reviewers who wear a shoe size 9 note that they are a bit too small for them.
7. Harvest & Mill
Best for: Naturally-colored dye-free cotton socks
Materials: 88% Organic Cotton
Price: $10 – $12 / Pair
Categories: Ankle and Crew Socks
Sustainable basics brand Harvest & Mill uses USA-grown and spun cotton for their ankle and crew organic socks. While these socks might look dyed with their earthy colors, they are actually completely dye-free — the natural color cotton varieties Harvest & Mill uses are naturally a muted brown or green.
8. tentree
Best for: hemp-blend white socks that plant trees
Materials: 71% Hemp and TENCEL
Lyocell
Price: $10 – $14 for 2-Pack
Categories: Ankle, Quarter, and Crew Socks
Socks are the crucial foundation of any closed-toe shoe and tentree’s basics are here to ensure you’re always putting your best foot forward. Crafted from a comfortable blend of hemp, TENCEL Lyocell, recycled polyester, their socks come in several lengths in basic pairs.
Plus, every pair plants 10 trees (the reason for their namesake ten-tree).
9. Conscious Step
Best for: giftable cause-driven organic socks
Materials: 75% Organic Cotton
Price: $15.95 / pair
Categories: Ankle and Crew Socks
Conscious Step’s socks are made with Fairtrade and GOTS-certified organic cotton and recycled polyester. The brand’s organic cotton socks are made with an exceptional quality too — with some even featuring a cushioned insole and arch support. But perhaps what this brand is really known for is that each design is associated with a different cause where a portion of your purchase goes.
10. Kind Socks
Best for: organic socks with fun prints
Materials: 80% Organic Cotton
Price: $12 – $14 / pair
Categories: Crew and Ankle Socks
KIND Socks is a Black-owned sustainable sock brand using GOTS-certified organic cotton for their vibrant collections. With prints like monstera leaves, watermelons, and bumblebees, KIND Socks will bring a touch of whimsy to any outfit.
The post 10 Sustainable Socks Made with Organic Fabrics appeared first on Conscious Life & Style.
When the temperatures go up, all I want to reach for is natural fibers — specifically, my linen clothing. There’s nothing quite as breathable or breezy as linen. So in this guide I break down what to know about this quintessential summer fiber, and share my top selections for linen clothing brands. They’re all small to mid-sized brands, mostly women-led!
Some Background on Linen
Where does linen come from?
Linen fiber is extracted from the stalks of flax plants. This plant is also known for providing us with nutritious flaxseeds and linseed oil — talk about an overachiever!
In fact, linen is one of the oldest fibers known to man, dating back to the prehistoric era. Archaeologists and paleobiologists have discovered flax fibers during excavations that were twisted, indicating they were used to make ropes or strings among many proposed applications that must have been a great advantage to the hunter-gatherer society. In fact, linen wrappings were even used for mummification in ancient Egypt.
Linen fabric is then created by obtaining its fibers from the inner bark (or stalks) of the flax plant.
How is the linen cloth made?
Before the fibers are spun into the breezy linen you know and love, its fibers are loosened and separated from the rest of the stalk through a process known as “retting”. At that point, the fibers are still straw-like and coarse in texture.
To soften it, the fibers are broken up into small, short bits, while the actual fiber is left unharmed, and then “scutched”, where the straw is scraped off the fiber. After which they are then pulled through “hackles”, that comb the straw out of the fiber to finally prepare flax for spinning into linen fabric.
And linen clothing is, of course, garments comprised of linen fiber in its entirety or blended with other fibers. For this guide, I tried to select brands that only used 100% linen or at the minimum blended linen with other natural fibers like cotton.
The Benefits of Linen Clothing
Why wear linen? Known for being ideal during the summers, clothing made from linen will allow heat to escape from the body while absorbing moisture and drying relatively quickly. While linen may have a notorious reputation for wrinkling rather quickly, when blended with other fibers, the creases aren’t as discernible as they would be with pure linens.
While linen may be notorious for its high energy consumption owing to its need to be ironed more, linen clothing’s pros easily outweigh its cons.
Flax plants can be grown in the harshest of climate conditions that require minimum water. What’s more impressive is the plant’s ability to absorb carbon. The European Confederation of Flax and Hemp (CELC) states that one hectare of flax absorbs 3.7 tons of CO2 every year.
Is Linen More Sustainable Than Cotton?
While there are benefits and drawbacks to every fiber when it comes to environmental sustainability, there are a few points where linen stands out when compared to cotton.
First, we know that durability is a key aspect of sustainability, because it means our clothes will last, enabling us to keep our clothes longer and buy new clothing less frequently.
So how long does linen clothing last in comparison to cotton? Linen clothing is up to 12 times stronger than cotton, helping increase its longevity and taking away the need to be replaced so often.
Another question might be about flax’s water usage. While the irrigation needs of the crop are dependent on the region’s climate (just as with cotton), 450–750 mm of water per season is sufficient for flaxseed. In fact, some studies even indicate that flax could be regarded as a drought-tolerant crop.
How to Care for Linen Clothing
When it comes to caring for linen clothing, linen can be washed on a gentle machine cycle with a mild detergent. (Check out these low waste low-impact detergent options.)
In case you’re curious whether linen stretches or shrinks, then there isn’t much to worry about. Linen is mostly pre-shrunk during the manufacturing stages but pure linens may show about 4% shrinkage.
And when it comes to stretch, linens aren’t known to stretch out over time but can show some level of elasticity when blended with other fibers.
Finally, it’s no secret that linen clothing tends to wrinkle easily! You may choose to embrace the natural characteristics of linen and wear your linen clothing as is, or if you want a crisper look, you may either want to look for a linen blended fabric, or be prepared to steam and/or iron your garments relatively frequently.
Note: This guide includes partners and/or affiliates. As always, brands must meet high standards for sustainability and ethics — and I only share brands that I believe in.
How to Find Sustainable Linen Clothing
So of course, I’m a big advocate for “secondhand first” when it comes to all fashion, including linen clothing. While your local thrift store might not be filled with 100% linen clothes, online secondhand shops can be a great resource. For luxury and premium brands, Vestiaire Collective and The RealReal. For more affordable options, my favorite pick is ThredUp because you can filter by natural fibers only. To be clear: the listings aren’t always accurate, so I still double check the descriptions of any product that shows up with that filter, but it does save some time to start there.
When looking for new linen clothing, I always prioritize small to mid-size women-led businesses. And I check the product details to see if they use 100% linen or if they’re deceptively saying “linen blend” and then it’s actually 50% polyester!
And while not perfect you can also look for certifications. These are the ones most relevant to linen clothing and linen fashion brands.
OEKO-TEX Standard 100 certifies that the finished textile product has been tested for harmful substances (heavy metals, formaldehyde, pesticide residue). This is a chemical-safety certification, not a guarantee of fair labor or environmental practices. So it tells you the linen has been tested for potentially toxic chemicals, but it doesn’t tell you who made it or how. Note that some brands just say “OEKO-TEX certified” — that virtually always refers to OEKO-TEX Standard 100, the most common certification from OEKO-TEX.
GOTS (Global Organic Textile Standard) certifies that a textile contains a minimum percentage of certified organic fiber and meets environmental and social criteria through processing. It’s the standard for verifying a fabric is genuinely “organic,” not just marketed that way.
B Corp certifies the company as a whole against social and environmental performance standards (labor, governance, environmental impact). This is a business-level cert, not a product-level one, so it doesn’t speak to any single garment’s materials.
Fair Trade Certified verifies that the specific factory/facility producing the item meets standards for labor conditions, wages, and worker safety, and that a Community Development Premium is paid to workers. It’s a labor and production-facility certification. It doesn’t certify the fabric’s environmental footprint or chemical content (that’s what OEKO-TEX covers), so a garment can carry both certifications and they’re speaking to different things.
Where to Find Eco-Friendly Linen Clothing
I scoured through dozens of brands to find my top picks for brands with sustainably-crafted linen clothing for women (some have men’s clothing too). I’ve included their conscious qualities, what they’re best for, and any caveats so you can make the best decision for yourself. Keep in mind while shopping that 100% linen garments won’t have any stretch — so if you run between sizes, I’d default to sizing up. But of course, check the size chart and reviews for each brand!
1. Linen Handmade Studio
Best for: tailored, elevated linen clothing
A lot of linen clothing can feel quite casual. And while Linen Handmade studio does have relaxed-fit options, what differentiates the brand in my opinion is their tailored options. I often hear from conscious readers that they want to wear natural fibers to work, but they can’t find something nice enough. Enter in: Linen Handmade Studio’s tailored pieces.
The brand has linen blazers and jackets, linen vests, and linen pants elevated enough for work or an evening out. (They even have bridesmaid dresses.) I’ve been wearing their Evelyn Longline Linen Vest in red clay on repeat and gotten so many compliments on it.
Price Range: $68 – $305
Size Range: US 2-18 (runs slightly small, I’d size up!)
Based in: Lithuania | Ships: Internationally; free U.S. shipping on orders $300+
2. MATE
Best for: casual GOTS-certified organic linen clothing
Prioritizing natural non-toxic materials, MATE has a collection of effortless linen shorts, button-downs, and pants made from GOTS-certified organic linen and colored with low-impact dyes.
That means that the color options at MATE are a bit more limited than you might see at other brands. They carry white, black, and “dune” — a soft beige.
I have their organic linen button-down in white and it’s been a reliable staple for me the past two years that’s held up beautifully.
Price Range: $88 – $178
Size Range: XS – XL
Based in: U.S. | Ships: Internationally
3. Linen Fox
Best for: romantic pastoral clothing in trend-forward colors and prints
Linen Fox is a Lithuanian small independent fashion brand — their team of 16 people make all of their linen clothing — including womenswear, menswear, and kids clothes.
The brand’s garments are made from OEKO-TEX Standard 100 certified linen fabric. The label follows fair trade principles to production and reduces fabric waste by selling their fabric scraps as samples, and crafting accessories like scrunchies. They also ship in 98% plastic-free packaging.
Price Range: $74 – $187
Size Range: XS – XL (several products fit oversized; check each description!)
Based in: Lithuania | Ships: Internationally
4. Magic Linen
Best for: linen separates plus matching home linens
From classic linen shirts to linen aprons and linen pajamas, Magic Linen is your destination for finding summer-ready sustainable linen clothing for men or women.
The small business’ linen clothing is made with European flax linen certified by OEKO-TEX Standard 100.
The Etsy shop also has plenty of linen home goods — I have linen curtains and bedsheets from Magic Linen and the quality of the fabric has been fantastic, with the sheets holding up well even after years of washing.
Price Range: $93 – $298
Size Range: XS – XXL
Based in: Lithuania | Ships: Internationally
5. Beaumont Organic
Best for: European-made linen clothing with full factory transparency
Looking for breathable garments perfect for your summer getaway to the English countryside or sea? Look no further than Beaumont Organic.
Beaumont Organic is a UK slow fashion brand with garments made from natural fabrics, like flax linen clothing! The brand publishes a directory of the factories they source from — 97% of production takes place in Northern Portugal.
They also have a repair program and are launching a resale program (currently available within the UK only).
Price Range: $211 – $300
Size Range: XS – L
Based in: UK | Ships: Internationally
6. LoveAndConfuse
Best for: feminine style linen clothing
The linen clothing from this lovely small Lithuanian brand on Etsy are truly swoon-worthy!
From wrap dresses to ruffled midi’s to high-waisted linen shorts and linen crop tops, their collection of linen fashion will have you dreaming of a slow travel escape to somewhere warm and sunny.
Price Range: $116 – $225
Size Range: XS – XL
Based in: Lithuania | Ships: Internationally
7. Neu Nomads
Best for: classic linen garments and resortwear
With a mission to create simple, sustainable luxury, Neu Nomads offers quality classics made from earth-minded materials, including 100% OEKO-TEX Standard 100-certified linen.
You’ll find linen trousers, effortless shirts, resort-ready kaftans, and tailored linen blazers in classic colors like white, black, olive, and bright coral.
Price Range: $159 – $359
Size Range: XXS – XXL
Based in: U.S. | Ships: Internationally
8. EILEEN FISHER
Best for: classic linen clothing with circularity programs
Slow fashion brand EILEEN FISHER has elegant, minimalistic garments made from eco-minded fabrics including organic linen. Several of the pieces are made in Fair Trade Certified factories.
This is the largest company on the list, but still considered a medium-sized enterprise — and, of course, this namesake label is woman-founded.
EILEEN FISHER’s organic linen clothing is timeless and made with quality, as part of their circularity efforts. In addition to ensuring their pieces last, the brand also has a resale program called Renew and a “third life” program that repurposes unwearable garments into unique artwork and other goods.
Price Range: $98 – $268
Size Range: XXS – XL
Based in: U.S. | Ships: Within U.S.
Your Questions, Answered:
What about Quince’s linen clothing?
While Quince offers more affordable linen clothing, in my experience their linen clothing is ok quality, but does not compare with the quality of some of the other brands on this list. Also, I personally want to prioritize women-led small businesses for my guides, not venture-backed billion-dollar companies.
Should I look for organic linen clothing?
While organic linen is wonderful, it is quite rare. Only two brands on this list use certified organic linen. Note that OEKO-TEX Standard 100 linen is not “organic” linen, but rather linen clothing that has been tested against common harmful substances. The most common certification for organic fiber clothing is Global Organic Textile Standard, or GOTS.
Is there any linen clothing that’s work-appropriate?
This one depends on your work place’s dress code, but there are a few options on this list with linen blazers, trousers, and other more tailored pieces like Linen Handmade Studio and Neu Nomads.
More Sustainable Clothing Guides:
The Best Organic Cotton Fashion Brands
Actually Fashionable Hemp Clothing Brands
The post 8 Best Linen Clothing Brands With Easy Breezy, Beautiful Pieces appeared first on Conscious Life & Style.
9 Best Linen Clothing Brands With Easy Breezy, Beautiful Pieces
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