The rise in global temperatures is a concern that many are taking seriously. Governments, big companies, small businesses, and everyday people are looking for ways to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to lessen climate change risks. One method that’s gaining a lot of attention is using carbon credits. This idea helps provide financial rewards for those who cut down on emissions and support the growth of clean energy sources. This article is the 5th part of our new series based on our 2023 Climate Change and Carbon Markets Annual Report. The series so far includes:
- Climate Change Basics: Causes, Impacts and Carbon Credit Solutions
- Carbon Credits Are Essential For Climate Action
- Carbon Credits For Fighting Climate Change
- Changing Fuels to Combat Climate Change
In this post, we’re going to explore the journey of carbon credits from the start with the Kyoto Protocol to now with the Paris Agreement. We’ll look at how global agreements on climate have evolved and how carbon credits play a crucial part in these. Through this discussion, we hope to give a clear picture of how the world is working together to create a sustainable environment for the future.
The Kyoto Protocol: Setting the Stage for Carbon Credits
The Kyoto Protocol, established under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in 1997, marked the inception of formalized global efforts to curb greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. This landmark treaty set forth binding emissions reduction targets for 37 industrialized nations and the European Union, aiming to reduce emissions to 5% below 1990 levels between 2008 and 2012. A subsequent amendment in 2012 extended these targets to 2013-2020. Central to the Kyoto Protocol was the innovative concept of carbon credits, designed to provide economic incentives for emissions reductions. The Protocol introduced Emissions Trading, the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), and Joint Implementation (JI), laying the foundation for the global carbon credit framework (see: https://unfccc.int/news/kyoto-protocol-paves-the-way-for-greater-ambition-under-paris-agreement#:~:text=,like%20Germany%20by%2030%20percent).
Key facts:
- The Kyoto Protocol committed developed countries to emissions reduction targets of 5% below 1990 levels between 2008-2012. This was later extended to 2013-2020 with an amended treaty.
- The innovative mechanisms introduced included Emissions Trading, CDM, and JI which provided the blueprint for carbon credits trading.
Paris Agreement: A New Dawn in Global Climate Cooperation
The Paris Agreement, adopted in 2015, emerged as a robust successor to the Kyoto Protocol, reflecting a global shift towards more inclusive and ambitious climate action. Unlike the Kyoto Protocol, which placed binding targets on developed countries alone, the Paris Agreement encourages all nations to contribute towards global emissions reduction. This inclusive framework aims to limit global temperature rise to well below 2°C, with an ambition of 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels. The Paris Agreement introduced the Sustainable Development Mechanism (SDM), poised to replace the Kyoto Protocol’s Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), signifying a transformation in the realm of carbon credits and setting a new trajectory for global environmental strategies (see: https://greencoast.org/kyoto-protocol-vs-paris-agreement).
Key facts:
- The Paris Agreement set a more ambitious goal of limiting global warming to 1.5°C compared to the Kyoto Protocol’s 2°C target.
- It has a universal framework encouraging all countries to contribute, unlike the Kyoto Protocol’s binding targets just for developed nations.
- Introduced the SDM to replace the CDM, reflecting an evolution in carbon credits post-Kyoto.
Why Some Countries Opted Out: Economic and Strategic Considerations
The Kyoto Protocol faced resistance from some major emitting countries due to concerns surrounding economic competitiveness and equity. The U.S., citing potential economic drawbacks and the lack of binding commitments on developing countries, chose not to ratify the Protocol. Canada withdrew in 2011, expressing concerns over the Protocol’s ability to effectively address global emissions without the participation of major emitters like the U.S. and China. These decisions underscored the complex interplay of economic, strategic, and environmental considerations that influence international climate agreements and the operationalization of carbon credits (see: https://kleinmanenergy.upenn.edu/news-insights/lessons-learned-from-kyoto-to-paris).
Key facts:
- The U.S. and Canada opted out due to concerns over economic impacts and equity without developing nations’ commitments.
- Highlights the strategic considerations alongside environmental ones in climate agreements.
Carbon Credits – A Mechanism to Meet Targets
The Kyoto Protocol introduced pioneering mechanisms like Emissions Trading, the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), and Joint Implementation (JI) to help nations meet their emissions reduction targets. These mechanisms provided the blueprint for the evolution of the carbon credit system, allowing for the trading of emission allowances and fostering international collaboration on carbon sequestration projects. The Paris Agreement further refined these mechanisms, introducing the Sustainable Development Mechanism (SDM) to build upon the successes and lessons learned from the Kyoto-era mechanisms, thereby enhancing the global carbon credit framework.
Key facts:
- Emissions Trading, CDM, and JI were introduced under Kyoto as innovative ways to meet reduction targets.
- Paris Agreement’s SDM builds on these mechanisms to further improve the carbon credits system.
The Decline of the CDM: Transitioning to a New Era
With the advent of the Paris Agreement, the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) saw a decline in prominence as the Sustainable Development Mechanism (SDM) emerged. This transition reflects the global community’s adaptive approach to evolving environmental challenges. The SDM, with its broader scope and enhanced flexibility, aims to address the shortcomings of the CDM, offering a more robust framework for carbon credit initiatives. The shift from CDM to SDM signifies a continued evolution in the mechanisms governing carbon credits, aligning with the ambitious global climate goals set forth by the Paris Agreement.
Key facts:
- The CDM is being replaced by the more robust SDM under Paris reflecting an adaptive approach.
- SDM has a wider scope and flexibility compared to CDM.
Challenges in Participation: Navigating Global Climate Dynamics
The participation challenges faced by the Kyoto Protocol highlight the complexities inherent in global climate agreements. Major emitters like the U.S. and China’s reluctance to commit to binding emissions reduction targets under the Kyoto Protocol underscored the need for a more inclusive approach. The Paris Agreement, with its universal framework for climate action, addresses some of these challenges by encouraging all nations, regardless of their economic status, to contribute towards global emissions reduction. However, the nuances of national and global priorities continue to influence the level of participation and commitment to carbon credit initiatives.
Key facts:
- Universal participation under Paris was designed to address the lack of major emitters’ commitment under Kyoto.
- National interests still impact countries’ levels of commitment to climate agreements.
The Role of the International Transaction Log (ITL): Ensuring Transparency and Accountability
The International Transaction Log (ITL) plays a crucial role in the operationalization of carbon credits by ensuring transparency, accountability, and efficiency in carbon credit transactions. Established by the Secretariat of the Conference of Parties, the ITL meticulously records carbon credit transactions, preventing potential issues like double-counting of reductions or the sale of identical credits multiple times. The ITL, by bridging national emissions trading registries and the UNFCCC, exemplifies the global commitment to a transparent and accountable carbon credit system, underpinning the credibility of international emissions trading initiatives.
Key facts:
- The ITL prevents double-counting and ensures transparency in carbon credits trading.
- It bridges national registries and UNFCCC to enable international cooperation.
Risks and Mitigation in Carbon Credit Projects: Ensuring Viability and Sustainability
Carbon credit projects, inherent with regulatory and market risks, necessitate robust mitigation strategies to ensure their viability and sustainability. The complexities of regulatory approvals, monitoring actual emissions, and navigating volatile market dynamics pose challenges to carbon credit projects. Leveraging approved CDM technologies and entering into long-term fixed-price contracts can significantly reduce these risks. The evolving carbon credit framework, transitioning from CDM to SDM under the Paris Agreement, reflects a continued effort to address these risks and enhance the sustainability of carbon credit projects.
Key facts:
- Regulatory and market risks pose viability challenges for carbon credit projects.
- CDM methodologies and long-term contracts help mitigate risks.
Controversies in Land Use Projects: Navigating Carbon Sequestration Challenges
Land use projects under the Kyoto Protocol aimed at GHG removals and emissions reductions through activities like afforestation and reforestation. However, they faced resistance due to challenges in estimating and tracking GHG removals over extended periods. The complexities of measuring carbon sequestration, particularly in vast forested areas, underscore the controversies and challenges inherent in the carbon credits domain. The Paris Agreement, with its enhanced framework for carbon credit initiatives, offers avenues to address some of these challenges, promoting a more robust and transparent approach to land use projects within the carbon credits framework.
Key facts:
- Estimating and monitoring carbon sequestration from land use projects is complex.
- Caused controversies under Kyoto but Paris Agreement provides scope to improve.
Conclusion – Carbon Credits and the Evolution of Global Climate Strategy
The journey of carbon credits, from the early days of the Kyoto Protocol to the transformative era of the Paris Agreement, offers a window into the world’s evolving approach to climate change mitigation. The innovative mechanisms introduced under these agreements have played a pivotal role in shaping the global carbon credit framework. As nations continue to navigate the complex landscape of global climate cooperation, understanding the intricacies of carbon credits remains pivotal in the collective quest for a sustainable future. Through the lens of carbon credits, we witness the global community’s adaptive strategies in the face of evolving environmental challenges, charting a course towards a more sustainable and resilient global climate framework.
Sources and References:
- UNFCCC – Kyoto Protocol: https://unfccc.int/kyoto_protocol
- UNFCCC – The Paris Agreement: https://unfccc.int/process-and-meetings/the-paris-agreement/the-paris-agreement
- Kleinman Center for Energy Policy – From Kyoto to Paris: https://kleinmanenergy.upenn.edu/news-insights/lessons-learned-from-kyoto-to-paris
- Green Coast – Kyoto Protocol vs Paris Agreement: https://greencoast.org/kyoto-protocol-vs-paris-agreement
- UNFCCC – CDM Methodologies: https://cdm.unfccc.int/methodologies/index.html
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Carbon Footprint
Microsoft (MSFT) Signs Solar Deal with Zelestra to Power Data Centers in Spain, Supporting Community Projects
Microsoft (MSFT) has signed a long-term Power Purchase Agreement (PPA) with Zelestra for 95.7 MWAC of solar power. The energy will come from two new solar farms in Aragón, Spain — Escatrón II and Fuendetodos II, both under construction. This clean energy will help power Microsoft’s data centers and operations in the region. It also supports Microsoft’s wider climate goals.
A Solar Deal That Shines Beyond Power
Beyond simply buying solar power, Microsoft is tying this deal to benefits for the local community. The non-profit ECODES will run a “Community Fund” financed by this PPA. ECODES plans to use this fund to support sustainability projects in Aragón. They will invest in local infrastructure, social inclusion, and environmental education.
Zelestra calls its strategy “3 Es”: Education, Energy, and Environment. Microsoft sees this as part of its “Datacenter Community Pledge,” which aims to ensure its operations help local areas as well as reduce its carbon footprint.
Why Microsoft’s 95.7 MW Bet Matters
This solar agreement matters for several reasons:
- Reliable clean energy: The 95.7 MW solar supply gives Microsoft a stable source of renewable power.
- Social benefits: ECODES will channel money into projects that help local people and ecosystems.
- Long-term local commitment: Zelestra intends to stay in Aragón and work with communities for years.
This structure shows how a big company can use a clean energy deal not just for itself, but for shared community value.
Spain’s Solar Boom and Zelestra’s Expanding Footprint
Solar power in Spain is booming. In the last few years, the country has added thousands of megawatts of solar capacity. According to Informa’s DBK report, solar energy grew by 6,000 MW in just one year, reaching 32,350 MW by 2024.
Red Eléctrica (the Spanish grid operator) data shows that by early 2025, solar PV installed capacity passed 32,000 MW, making solar the largest source of power capacity in Spain.
This growth reflects a major shift in Spain’s energy mix. In 2024, solar PV generated a record 44,520 GWh of electricity, about 17% of the country’s total electricity output.
At the same time, renewables now make up around 66% of Spain’s total power generation capacity. These numbers show how central solar power has become to Spain’s energy transition.
The outlook is even more ambitious. According to GlobalData, Spain’s solar capacity could reach 152.8 GW by 2035, driven by strong policy support and growing investor confidence. To fuel this, many new projects are already in the permitting stage.
In 2025 alone, more than 5 GW of solar projects were submitted for environmental approval. Castilla‑La Mancha is a major one of those major regions, and it stands out in Zelestra’s portfolio.
Zelestra is a major player in this growth. In 2025, it secured €146.6 million to build six solar plants in Castilla‑La Mancha, totaling 237 MWdc. These projects will create jobs, generate around 467 GWh of clean energy per year, and avoid over 84,000 tons of CO₂ emissions annually.
Zelestra is also expanding its corporate partnerships, providing renewable electricity for companies like Microsoft and Graphic Packaging International. Its portfolio in Spain exceeds 6 GW, showing its strong commitment to the country’s clean energy transition and its role as a key developer of large-scale solar projects.
Inside Microsoft’s Push Toward Carbon Negativity
Microsoft has set strong climate goals. In 2020, it announced its plans to be carbon negative by 2030. That means by then, it wants to remove more carbon from the atmosphere than it emits.
To reach this, the tech giant is doing several things:
- It has contracted 34 GW of new renewable energy across 24 countries.
- It aims to match 100% of its electricity use with zero‑carbon power by 2025.
- It invests in carbon removal. In fiscal year 2024, Microsoft signed contracts for nearly 22 million metric tons of carbon removal.
- It uses a $1 billion Climate Innovation Fund to support new technologies.
Progress and Challenges in Emissions
Microsoft has made real progress, but it also faces big challenges. Its Scope 1 and Scope 2 emissions (those from its own operations and electricity use) dropped 29.9% compared to 2020.
But its total emissions (including its supply chain, or “Scope 3”) rose by 23–26% since 2020. This increase comes mainly from its rapid growth in data centers and cloud services.
Because it makes a lot of servers, chips, and hardware, Microsoft’s construction and supply chain also generate emissions. To cut those, it is working with its suppliers. By 2030, Microsoft plans to require high-volume suppliers to use 100% carbon‑free electricity.
Microsoft’s clean energy capacity has grown steadily since 2013, starting with wind projects in the U.S. By 2022, capacity reached 900 MW with wind and solar projects in Europe and the U.S.
In 2024, Microsoft signed the largest corporate clean energy deal for 10.5 GW with Brookfield Renewable, delivering by 2030. This reflects Microsoft’s goal to power all operations with 100% renewable energy by 2030, underscoring its leadership in global sustainability efforts.
Carbon Removal and Long-Term Risks
Microsoft is not just cutting emissions, it is also removing carbon. It invests in two big types of removal:
- Nature-based removal: Microsoft has a deal with Chestnut Carbon to buy over 7 million tons of forest-based carbon credits.
- Advanced removal: Microsoft supports projects like bioenergy with carbon capture and storage (BECCS). It recently backed a project in Louisiana that could capture 6.75 million tons of CO₂ over 15 years.
Still, some experts warn that Microsoft’s climate strategy lacks targets beyond 2030. That could challenge its long-term impact.
SEE MORE on Microsoft:
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How the Solar Deal Fits into Microsoft’s Strategy?
The 95.7 MW deal in Spain ties directly into Microsoft’s overall carbon-negative goal. Here’s how it fits:
- It adds zero-carbon electricity to Microsoft’s grid mix.
- It supports Microsoft’s plan to match all its power use with clean energy.
- The deal’s community fund reinforces Microsoft’s aim to pair climate action with social value.
- It strengthens Microsoft’s global clean energy portfolio.
This helps Microsoft reduce its operational emissions (Scope 1 & 2) and supports its broader mission to remove carbon.
What’s Next for Microsoft, Zelestra, and Local Communities?
If all goes well, the two solar farms in Aragón will come online and deliver power to Microsoft for many years. The ECODES fund should start giving out grants to local groups, helping build greener projects in the community.
The tech giant must also keep pushing its carbon removal work and supplier engagement. It needs to make sure its long-term investments bring real, measurable climate impact.
Zelestra, for its part, will prove whether it can deliver reliable solar and meaningful social impact. If the model works, more companies may use similar “clean energy + community” contracts.
The agreement is more than just about cutting emissions — it’s also about helping local communities. At the same time, Microsoft’s push to be carbon negative by 2030 is ambitious and complex. It involves clean power, carbon removal, and changes in its entire supply chain.
This Spanish solar deal adds a new piece to Microsoft’s climate puzzle. It strengthens its clean energy supply and shows how corporate climate goals can benefit more than just the bottom line.
The post Microsoft (MSFT) Signs Solar Deal with Zelestra to Power Data Centers in Spain, Supporting Community Projects appeared first on Carbon Credits.
Over the past two years, the world of carbon offsetting has entered a new era—one defined by legal scrutiny, public demand for accuracy, and a deeper understanding of how complex carbon accounting truly is. This shift reflects a growing expectation that environmental claims must be both scientifically credible and communicated with absolute precision.
Carbon Footprint
Constellation Secures $1B DOE Loan to Restart Crane Clean Energy Center and Boost America’s Nuclear Energy Future
U.S. Secretary of Energy Chris Wright announced on November 18 that the Department of Energy’s Loan Programs Office has finalized a $1 billion loan to help lower energy costs and restart a Pennsylvania nuclear power plant. The funding will support Constellation Energy Generation, LLC in financing the Crane Clean Energy Center, an 835 MW facility located on the Susquehanna River in Londonderry Township, Pennsylvania. This loan marks a major step toward restoring reliable, carbon-free power to the region.
Energy Secretary Wright highlighted further,
“Thanks to President Trump’s bold leadership and the Working Families Tax Cut, the United States is taking unprecedented steps to lower energy costs and bring about the next American nuclear renaissance. Constellation’s restart of a nuclear power plant in Pennsylvania will provide affordable, reliable, and secure energy to Americans across the Mid-Atlantic region. It will also help ensure America has the energy it needs to grow its domestic manufacturing base and win the AI race.”
Constellation (Nasdaq: CEG) is the first company to receive a simultaneous conditional loan commitment and financial close from the DOE Loan Programs Office. Its strong finances and credit rating allowed the process to move quickly. The loan, provided through the Energy Dominance Financing Program, will lower financing costs and attract private investment to restart the plant. In addition, DOE noted the project will help the U.S. stay competitive in the global AI and digital economy, which is driving higher electricity demand.
Crane Clean Energy Center: Returning 835 MW of Carbon-Free Power
The Crane Clean Energy Center is an 835-megawatt nuclear plant on the Susquehanna River. Previously known as Three Mile Island Unit 1, it has a long and historic legacy. In March 1979, Three Mile Island Unit 2 suffered a partial meltdown and has remained in monitored storage ever since. Unit 1, however, continued operating safely for four decades before being shut down in September 2019 due to market conditions rather than safety concerns.
In September 2024, Constellation signed a 20-year power purchase agreement with Microsoft, which allows the tech giant to buy the carbon-free electricity generated by the restarted plant. Following the agreement, Constellation rebranded the facility as the Crane Clean Energy Center. As said before, once operational, the plant will provide 835 MW of nuclear energy.
DOE Loan Accelerates the Restart
Constellation (Nasdaq: CEG) is the first company to receive a simultaneous conditional loan commitment and financial close from the DOE Loan Programs Office. Its strong finances and credit rating allowed the process to move quickly. The loan, provided through the Energy Dominance Financing Program, will lower financing costs and attract private investment to restart the plant. In addition, DOE noted the project will help the U.S. stay competitive in the global AI and digital economy, which is driving higher electricity demand.
DOE stated that the Crane loan aligns with President Trump’s Executive Order on Reinvigorating the Nuclear Industrial Base. The project is the first under this administration to receive a simultaneous conditional commitment and financial close.
Because the reactor was never fully decommissioned, restarting it is faster and more cost-effective than building a new plant. The loan will fund equipment inspections, system upgrades, workforce training, and regulatory compliance. Once approved by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission, the plant will supply enough electricity to power about 800,000 homes across the PJM Interconnection region. It will help lower electricity costs, strengthen grid reliability, and create hundreds of jobs.
READ MORE:
- Constellation Secures Groundbreaking $1 Billion Clean Nuclear Energy Deal with Federal Government
- Constellation and Calpine’s $16.4B Deal Boosts U.S. Clean Energy Transition
Pennsylvania Leads in Clean Energy and AI Power
Senator Dave McCormick praised the DOE loan, saying Pennsylvania is leading the nation in energy independence and AI innovation. He highlighted that the restart will deliver more than 800 MW of carbon-free electricity and create 3,400 direct and indirect jobs.
McCormick also noted Constellation’s ongoing investments across the state, including commitments announced at the Pennsylvania Energy and Innovation Summit. The restart comes amid unprecedented electricity demand from AI, cloud computing, and expanding data centers.
A Goldman Sachs report predicts that AI could increase data-center power demand by 160 percent. AI queries, like those used by tools such as ChatGPT, require nearly ten times more electricity than a standard Google search. Nuclear power is vital to meet this growing demand reliably.
Extending Nuclear Plant Life: Constellation’s Strategy for Reliable Power
Constellation has invested in local communities by committing over $1 million in charitable contributions over five years. In 2025 alone, the company donated $200,000 to support nonprofits, workforce programs, and local initiatives.
Significantly, restarting Crane is part of Constellation’s larger multi-billion-dollar plan to extend the life of America’s nuclear fleet, increase output, and ensure reliable power for decades.
The Crane Clean Energy Center is expected to deliver significant economic benefits to Pennsylvania. An analysis by the Pennsylvania Building and Construction Trades Council projected that the restart would create thousands of direct and indirect jobs. It could add more than $16 billion to the state’s GDP and generate over $3 billion in state and federal tax revenue.
The plant is already more than 80 percent staffed, with over 500 employees, including engineers, mechanics, technicians, and licensed operators. Regulatory reviews and technical inspections remain on schedule.
Joe Dominguez, president and CEO of Constellation, said:
“DOE’s quick action and leadership is another huge step towards bringing hundreds of megawatts of reliable nuclear power onto the grid at this critical moment. Under the Trump administration, the FERC and DOE have made it possible for us to vastly expedite this restart without compromising quality or safety. It’s a great example of how America first energy policies create jobs, growth and opportunities and make the grid more reliable. Utilities and grid operators are moving too slowly and need to make regulatory changes that will allow our nation to unlock its abundant energy potential. Constellation and nuclear energy are helping to lead the way and we are thankful to President Trump and Secretary Wright for putting the ‘energy’ back into DOE.”
Nuclear Power for America’s Clean Energy Future
The surge in AI, electrification, and cloud computing has made nuclear energy more critical than ever. Small modular reactors and advanced technologies are gaining interest from utilities and data-center developers.
The U.S. produces about 30 percent of the world’s nuclear electricity. Ninety-four reactors supply steady, clean power to millions of homes and industries nationwide. According to the World Nuclear Association, U.S. reactors generated 779 terawatt-hours in 2023, accounting for 19 percent of the nation’s total electricity output.
The administration aims to quadruple U.S. nuclear capacity to 400 gigawatts by 2050. The International Energy Agency projects 35 GW of new capacity by 2035 and 200 GW by 2050, nearly triple current levels. Restarting Crane contributes to this goal while providing reliable baseload power, supporting AI and digital growth, and boosting the economy.
Electricity generation for data centres by fuel in the United States, Base Case, 2020-2035
The Crane Clean Energy Center restart is a key step toward clean, reliable energy. It shows how nuclear power can meet rising electricity needs, support innovation, and strengthen local economies.
The post Constellation Secures $1B DOE Loan to Restart Crane Clean Energy Center and Boost America’s Nuclear Energy Future appeared first on Carbon Credits.
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