With more than 90% of global trade moving by ocean transport, maritime shipping is a major driver of the world economy. However, shipping has a serious pollution problem that threatens our climate, communities and the marine environment. If we are to avert climate catastrophe, the shipping sector must immediately begin to eliminate the 1 billion-plus metric tons of greenhouse gases it emits every year.
In response, the International Maritime Organization (IMO)—the United Nations body that governs global shipping—passed a new strategy to eliminate the sector’s greenhouse gas emissions in July 2023. The 2023 strategy is more ambitious than the earlier one it replaces and covers full life cycle (also known as well-to-wake or WtW) emissions of all greenhouse gases (GHG), not just those from burning fuel onboard and not just carbon dioxide (CO2). The ultimate goal is to reach net-zero emissions by 2050 through emission reductions of 30% by 2030 and 80% by 2040. To reach these targets, a massive energy transition from dirty conventional marine fuels to zero-emission energy (like wind-assisted propulsion) and fuels is imperative. There is no time to waste on false climate solutions like Liquified Natural Gas (LNG)—a fossil fuel with serious global warming and public health implications.
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Unfortunately, international shipping has been increasing its investments in LNG. What is behind the industry’s embrace of LNG, and what are the potential implications on efforts to reduce shipping’s GHG emissions? A new report from Ocean Conservancy and Energy and Environment Research Associates, “Analysis of Liquified Natural Gas as a Marine Fuel in the United States,” takes a comprehensive look at the full life cycle (i.e., extraction, production, transport, storage and use) of LNG to answer these questions.
What is LNG?
Liquified natural gas is not exactly “natural”. To produce LNG, natural gas, more than 80% of which comes from hydraulic fracturing (“fracking”) in the United States, is liquified by cooling it to -162o Celsius (-260oFarenheit). After this liquefaction process, LNG is transported via truck, rail or ship to receiving terminals, where it is regasified and stored before distribution to end-users.
The LNG Value Chain
LNG is a risky but growing maritime fuel choice
Given the intensifying focus on mitigating global shipping’s climate impact, the drift toward LNG may be baffling to many. Several regulatory and market drivers can help explain this conundrum. LNG has negligible sulfur content that supports low sulfur oxide (SOx) emissions. When the IMO’s regulation to cut SOx emissions went into effect in 2020, LNG became a growing alternative fuel choice for marine transportation. When combusted, LNG also has lower CO2 emissions and so was seen as a “transition” fuel for the sector when the initial IMO greenhouse gas strategy focused only on CO2emissions from burning fuels on vessels. These factors, along with LNG’s increasing availability and lower price compared to emerging zero-emission fuels, are behind much, if not all, of the shift to LNG.
Growth in the LNG Fleet
However, LNG is not a low greenhouse gas fuel and has serious climate implications. It is composed almost entirely of methane, which is 27-30 times more potent than CO2 as a greenhouse gas over a 100-year timeframe and is 82.5 times more potent than CO2 over the near term. Methane emissions from international shipping increased by approximately 150% between 2012-2018, primarily attributed to the increase in use of LNG as a propulsion fuel with LNG accounting for around 3.8 – 4.6% of energy consumed by international shipping per GHG4.
These are just the “tank-to-wake” onboard methane emissions of LNG. Methane leaks or slips and intentional venting of uncombusted methane for routine maintenance or maintaining storage pressures actually occur all along the LNG value chain.
The life cycle methane emissions of LNG matter. Our report presents evidence that in addition to their global warming implications, these emissions from increased LNG consumption also have impacts on human health and environmental justice.
Methane emissions, which can result from the production and consumption of LNG, are linked to significant impacts on air quality by influencing concentrations of ground-level ozone. Ozone exposure causes and exacerbates respiratory issues, including asthma, and has been linked to cardiovascular disease and premature death. Additionally, harmful pollutants are released during natural gas extraction, processing and liquefaction, potentially impacting the air and water quality of nearby communities.
The combustion of LNG generally has globally distributed risks, whereas the upstream (well-to-tank) emissions from processes to produce LNG can have a more localized effect. Communities near LNG production facilities may face health consequences resulting from exposure to pollutants, economic impacts due to fluctuations in property values, and socio-economic and cultural changes arising from their proximity to emerging natural gas projects. Our report documents links between LNG production and instances of environmental injustices tied to ethnicity, culture, gender and income.
For the maritime sector, policy decisions and implementation timelines can shape choices in engine, fuel and exhaust after-treatment and guide infrastructure development. We can see this in the growth in uptake of LNG in order to comply with earlier regulations. The IMO’s 2023 strategy marks a turning point toward mitigating all greenhouse gas emissions along the entire maritime fuel and energy value chain. The process is now underway to design and adopt the technical and economic policies to drive the maritime energy transition. Given the questions over the costs and feasibility of retrofitting LNG-fueled vessels and supporting infrastructure that is presented in the report, this growing inclusion of methane in regulatory frameworks will play a pivotal role in deterring LNG use.
It’s abundantly clear that LNG use as a marine fuel does not meet stated climate goals and can perpetuate environmental injustices. Political intervention, not only to better regulate methane but also to improve the economic viability of near-zero and zero-greenhouse gas fuels, is imperative to meet 2030, 2040 and 2050 climate timelines. This could take form in penalties to polluters through emissions pricing, or subsidies to support production of energy alternatives—or a combination of both. To reach zero-emission shipping, we need to bypass false fossil solutions like LNG and focus on maximizing efficiency to reduce fuel use and invest resources in true zero-emission solutions.
Maximize the value of “Analysis of Liquified Natural Gas as a Marine Fuel in the United States”
In its efforts to identify and advance ocean-based climate solutions, Ocean Conservancy is leading a global, multiyear campaign to completely eliminate the gigaton of GHG pollution that the maritime shipping sector emits each year. As a rapid transition to zero-emission marine fuels is essential, Ocean Conservancy partnered with Energy and Environment Research Associates to analyze the arguments that LNG is the best option for a “bridge” fuel. The report is the latest contribution to Ocean Conservancy’s growing body of research that is informing and advancing the maritime energy transition.
The LNG landscape—from fuel production and bunkering to vessel operations and environmental considerations—is rapidly evolving. This report covers all aspects of LNG as a marine fuel, including discussion of policies and regulations; LNG engine technologies and emissions; the global and U.S. LNG vessel fleets; production, import and export of LNG; and the health and equity implications of LNG. The main chapters are supported by additional detail in the Supplemental Information sections found at the end of the report.
- Bookmark the report: you may not read through from start to finish, but you’ll want easy access to this resource when questions about LNG arise.
- Check out the summary slides.
- Use the table of contents to direct you to the sections you most need.
- Share with others!
The post The Problems with Liquefied Natural Gas appeared first on Ocean Conservancy.
By Qi-Fan Wu (Niels Bohr Institutet, University of Copenhagen)
During our journey, we saw many beautiful cloud patterns while looking outside the METEOR! Even though people do not always pay attention to them, clouds are among the most visible elements of the sky and naturally form part of our everyday background. And when we sailed away from the coastal region of Recife to the open ocean, the sky seemed to open up, allowing clouds to reveal their full variety and structure.
In climate modelling, clouds are one of the biggest sources of uncertainty. There is a famous saying in mathematics: “Mathematics is the queen of the sciences, number theory is the crown of mathematics, and the Goldbach Conjecture is the pearl on the crown.” The same idea can be applied to the study of clouds in Earth science. There is still no general macroscopic theory of clouds. Cloud physics is an absolutely fascinating topic, as it combines turbulence, stochastic processes, chemicals in the air, multiscale interactions within the Earth–atmosphere system, and a close connection to our daily weather.
In this blog entry, we would like to share some lovely photos of cloud patterns that we took on METEOR. Instead of serious systematic investigations, we focus on the basic cloud physics behind some typical cloud phenomena shown in these photos. These examples might provide something interesting to think about during our leisure time, even after returning to land. If nature is an artist, clouds are among its finest masterpieces, shaped by physical laws and stochastic processes.
What are clouds, and what is inside them? Clouds are made of many liquid water droplets and ice crystals inside the boundaries of the cloud. They are mostly air, with the many particles dispersed widely and more or less randomly throughout the cloud interiors [a]. The individual particles that make up a cloud are very, very small and not generally visible to the human eye.
When we look up from our research vessel METEOR and observe clouds, we first see their macroscopic structure: their overall shape, height, thickness, and organization across the sky. Broad, layered clouds often form through slow, large-scale ascent, while towering clouds with visible turrets reflect rapid rising motion in smaller air parcels. These visible forms are continuously shaped by moisture supply, cooling, turbulence, mixing with drier air, and precipitation, linking the large-scale atmospheric flow to the clouds we observe [a,b].
After leaving Recife, we entered a region typically influenced by the southeast trade winds of the tropical South Atlantic, where a vertically layered atmosphere, warm ocean conditions, and wind-driven mixing often promote a turbulent marine boundary layer. In Figure 1, the sky shows a layered cloudscape ranging from thin, high cirrostratus and altocumulus clouds to low cumulus and towering cumulonimbus clouds. These different forms reflect how the atmosphere organizes moisture, cooling, and vertical motion: broad layers are associated with gradual ascent, while the rising turrets of cumulus and cumulonimbus reveal stronger localized updrafts. Together, they illustrate the visible macroscopic structure of clouds, shaped by atmospheric motion and the microphysical processes occurring within them.
It should be noted that, in general, atmospheric temperature in the troposphere decreases with increasing altitude. Over the subtropical oceans, however, this is not the case. A relatively thin temperature-inversion layer lies above the subtropical marine boundary layer, within which temperature increases with height and the atmosphere is highly stable (Figure 2). Cloud occurrence above the marine boundary layer is relatively low in this region. The base of the trade-wind inversion is typically located at an altitude of approximately 1–2 km, separating the moist lower layer from the dry free troposphere [c].
This large-scale thermodynamic structure provides the environmental conditions under which clouds form and evolve. At the microscopic scale, however, clouds consist of particles: liquid water droplets, ice crystals, or a mixture of both. Clouds composed entirely of liquid droplets are commonly referred to as “warm clouds”, whereas clouds containing ice particles are classified as “cold clouds”. When liquid droplets and ice crystals coexist, the cloud is described as a mixed-phase cloud. However, the distinction between “warm” and “cold” clouds hinge on the phase of the particles, not on the temperature. The warm/cold distinction depends on the microphysical phase of the particles inside the cloud, which a normal naked eye observation cannot resolve.
Warm clouds consist of liquid water droplets spanning a range of sizes, from small haze droplets and cloud condensation nuclei to cloud droplets, drizzle drops, and raindrops (Figure 3). Cloud droplets typically form when water vapour condenses onto cloud condensation nuclei. Rainfall develops when some droplets grow much larger: larger droplets fall faster, collide with smaller droplets, and collect them. As a result, many small cloud droplets can combine to form fewer, larger drizzle drops and eventually raindrops [a]. This process approximately conserves the total liquid-water mass within the cloud, while transferring water from numerous small droplets to a much smaller number of large drops that are heavy enough to fall as rain.
Cold clouds contain ice particles, either alone or together with supercooled liquid water droplets [a]. Unlike liquid droplets, which are nearly spherical because of surface tension, ice particles can develop a wide range of crystalline shapes, including plates, columns, needles, dendrites, and aggregates (Figure 4). Their shape depends mainly on temperature and ice supersaturation during growth by water-vapour deposition. As ice crystals become large enough to fall, they may collide and stick together to form snow aggregates, or collect supercooled droplets that freeze on contact, a process known as riming. The regular hexagonal structure of ice crystals can also produce optical phenomena such as halos, which form when sunlight is refracted or reflected by suitably oriented ice crystals in high-level clouds as shown in Figure 3. In mixed-phase clouds, uplift supports the growth of ice crystals at the expense of supercooled droplets. Once sufficiently large, the ice precipitates and may melt into rain or drizzle while falling through the melting layer (Figure 3).
When we approached the equator, we saw many cumulus clouds with remarkably flat bases, marking the lifting condensation level where warm, moist air rising from the ocean cooled to its dew point and condensed into droplets. Similar temperature/humidity across an area leads to clouds sharing flat bases. Their uneven, towering tops reflected continued turbulence and convection above this level, revealing the active vertical mixing of the tropical atmosphere (Figure 5). As moist tropical air rises toward the cold-point tropopause, it encounters extremely low temperatures. When an air mass reaches a local temperature minimum, water vapour can freeze into very thin cirrus clouds (Figure 6).
After crossing the equator, we entered the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), a band of heavy rainfall extending across the tropical Atlantic. Cloud organization within and around the ITCZ varies markedly from day to day. Extensive low-level stratocumulus clouds can also occur in the surrounding region, acting like a blanket that reduces the amount of incoming solar radiation reaching the ocean surface (Figure 7).
As we continued northward on our way home, we moved closer to the continent and witnessed some spectacular roll clouds, a very rare meteorological phenomenon. This type of cloud is known as “Morning Glory,” although evening land breezes can also produce roll clouds. The roll cloud is not attached to other clouds. associated with a solitary wave, a wave that has a single crest and moves without changing speed or shape.
As we were relatively close to the shoreline of West Africa, these roll clouds may have been produced by internal gravity waves propagating along a stable marine boundary layer [d]. The collision or sudden advance of a sea breeze or cold front can disturb the stable air layer near the surface, generating an atmospheric bore (a train of internal gravity waves). Such waves consist of alternating regions of upward and downward motion. Along the crest of the wave, moist air is lifted and cools to saturation, forming clouds, while behind the crest the air descends and warms, causing the cloud to evaporate. Because this cycle of ascent and descent extends along a long line of low-level convergence, cloud is continuously generated at the leading edge and dissipated at the trailing edge, maintaining a long, coherent band (Figure 8).
I think observing and thinking about clouds can be a nice hobby for enjoying the beauty of nature. Cloud processes are stochastic because nucleation and droplet collection do not occur at exactly the same time for every particle, even under the same environmental conditions [a]. Instead, freezing, condensation, and coalescence depend on chance microscopic events, so only some droplets become “lucky” and grow or freeze earlier than others. Perhaps cloud viewing could also give us good food for thought. After all, many cloud-related problems in climate modeling remain among the most beautiful mysteries in climate science.
Enjoy ~
References:
[a] Lamb D, Verlinde J. Physics and Chemistry of Clouds. Cambridge University Press; 2011.
[b] Levizzani, V., Kidd, C. (2025). Cloud Physics. In: Precipitation. Geophysics and Environmental Physics. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-97096-2_3
[c] Shang-Ping Xie. Subtropical climate: Trade winds and low clouds. In: Coupled Atmosphere-Ocean Dynamics. Elsevier; 2024. p. 139–163. doi:10.1016/B978-0-323-95490-7.00006-0.
[d] The Morning Glory and related phenomena. https://www.meteo.physik.uni-muenchen.de/~roger/AustralianProjects/TheMorningGlory/TheMorningGlory.html
By Naomi Krauzig (GEOMAR)
One of the most rewarding aspects of M219 has been contributing to the maintenance of the long-term GEOMAR mooring arrays that quietly monitor the tropical Atlantic year after year.
While CTD/LADCP casts and other shipboard measurements provide invaluable snapshots of the ocean, these anchored instruments provide something that cannot be obtained otherwise: continuous observations spanning minutes, days, seasons, years, and even decades. As an observational oceanographer, it is difficult not to appreciate the value of these datasets. They form the foundation for understanding ocean variability in regions that are critical for Atlantic climate variability and allow us to detect and quantify long-term changes that would otherwise remain hidden within the ocean’s natural variability.
Our first major operations took place off the Brazilian coast at 11°S, where the K1 to K4 moorings form part of a long-term observing system monitoring the western boundary current system and the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC). Within just a few days, the four deep-sea moorings were successfully recovered, assessed, serviced, and redeployed.
Every recovery felt a bit like opening a treasure chest. After spending a year or more beneath the ocean surface, these instruments returned carrying an invaluable record of currents, temperature, salinity, oxygen, and other key ocean properties. It was incredibly rewarding to see how well they had performed. Nearly all instruments operated successfully throughout the entire deployment period, delivering high-quality datasets with remarkably few gaps.
From Brazil, we continued north to the equator at 23°W, home to another key long-term mooring at exactly 0°N. Since 2006, this mooring has been monitoring the Equatorial Undercurrent and the deep equatorial circulation from the surface to nearly 4,000 m depth. Its successful recovery and redeployment mean that this unique 20-year time series will continue, helping us better understand how the tropical Atlantic influences climate, oxygen and nutrient transport, and marine ecosystems across the basin.
Our final mooring destination brought us to the Cape Verde Ocean Observatory (CVOO), one of the flagship long-term ocean observatories in the eastern tropical Atlantic. Here, physical, biogeochemical, and ecological observations come together to track how the ocean stores heat and carbon and how marine ecosystems respond to environmental change. Like the moorings at 11°S and the equator, the value of CVOO lies not in a single measurement, but in the continuity of the multi-decadal record.
For me, one of the most memorable aspects was seeing how many people contributed to the success of the mooring operations. Careful planning laid the foundation, while having a dedicated person keeping track of every step ensured that everything ran smoothly (kudos to Anna Christina Hans, aka Tina!). On deck, crew, technicians, and scientists worked together like a well-oiled machine, stepping in where needed and solving problems on the fly.
The teamwork extended all the way back home to GEOMAR. Thanks to Rebecca Hummels’ mooring toolbox, data from several instruments could already be processed and checked while parts of the moorings were still in the water, providing an early look at the quality of the observations. On top of that, mooring experts were available around the clock to provide information, advice, and troubleshooting whenever needed. I believe the high success rate of the recoveries and redeployments is a testament to the experience, teamwork, and dedication of everyone involved.
With the major milestone of the successful mooring work behind us, another exciting operation was still ahead. Waiting in Mindelo was a brand-new surface buoy, ready to begin its own contribution to these invaluable long-term observations. Stay tuned to learn more about that deployment in a future blog post.
Keeping the Record Alive: Long-Term Ocean Observations in the Tropical Atlantic
By Joelle Habib (Laboratoire d’Océanographie Villefranche)
When you go on a scientific cruise, you always think about the instruments you’re going to deploy, the great data you’re going to acquire, or the experiments you’ll conduct. What you almost always forget is the small thing that isn’t actually small at all: food. And how are you going to eat it!
For those not familiar with scientific cruises: once you’re on board, most of your time goes to the science. You don’t really have time for food or food preparation. But there are always hidden heroes preparing your breakfast, lunch, and dinner, and, most importantly, the dessert for the dessert break. Today, instead of shedding light on the science, we’re going to talk about people, starting with the two chefs our lives basically depend on.
Rainer Götze and Peter Wernitz are the chefs of the last METEOR cruise. Rainer has been cooking on this ship for over 23 years, while Peter has been doing it for 13. Together they cook for 60 people on board, seamen and scientists alike. You’re probably wondering, like I was, how they pull it off. I had the chance to talk to them, and here are some of the ship’s secrets.
Let’s start with the planning. They don’t prepare the whole month’s menu before going on board, they plan it day by day. That said, a few dishes are practically law: fish on Tuesday and Friday, stew on Saturday (the stews are good, but it’s still my least favorite food day), and roasted meat on Sunday. Ice cream shows up for dessert on Sunday and Thursday lunches. And no matter the day, there’s always a vegetarian option on the table, nobody on board goes without something to eat.
So, all this cooking, but how many ingredients does it actually take? Let’s start with numbers. Every morning for breakfast there’s a choice of eggs (scrambled, boiled, fried…), pancakes, and more. So how many eggs are on this ship? For a one-month cruise, there are 3,000 eggs in storage, and the cooks go through around 90 of them a day. They also bake fresh bread every single day, about 3kg of flour goes into roughly 60 loaves. Coffee breaks happen all day, every day, there’s about 60kg of coffee on board. And since we’re on a German ship, and Germans do love their potatoes, there are 300kg of potatoes stored in a refrigerated, dark room so they don’t go bad.
You might be wondering why I’m talking so much about potatoes. Well, my dear reader, lunch has plenty of variety, but the one constant is potatoes. We’re on day 20 of the cruise, and I think we’ve worked through most of the varieties by now: fried, baked, soufflé, mashed, boiled and more still to come.
Another question I had was what happens if one of them gets sick. Rainer is a tough seaman who doesn’t get seasick anymore; Peter still does, occasionally. But either way, they’re always there, cooking through good conditions and bad. People generally love the food, though the chefs did tell me the one thing that never goes down well is old-school dishes like veal liver. (I can confirm.)
I think the message I’m trying to convey here is: a scientific cruise wouldn’t really be possible without Peter and Rainer. Science at sea is not only the science, but it’s also the work and effort of everyone on board. Especially the chefs!
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